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BERKELEY 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  Of 


ANTHROPOLOGY  LIBRARY 


:!TY  C?  CALJFC.-NIA 
i*'T  OF  AMTKEGPOLOGY 

G!;7  OF 
«AMUa  ALi'HiiO  BARRgTT,  'OS 


'      ' 


DAVID  ZEISBERGER'S 

HISTORY  OF  THE  NORTHERN 

AMERICAN  INDIANS 


EDITED  BY 


ARCHER  BUTLER  HULBERT 

Professor   of  American    History,    Marietta    College; 

Editor  Washington  and  the  West,  Washington's 

Tour  of  Ohio,  Crown  Collection  of 

American  Maps,  etc. 

AND 

WILLIAM  NATHANIEL  SCHWARZE 

Professor  of  Historical  Theology,  Moravian  College 
and  Theological  Seminary. 


OHIO  STATE  ARCHAEOLOGICAL 
AND  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY 


THE  F.  J.  HEER  PRINTINGfCO., 
PRINTERS 

Add'l 


En 
Z4 


PREFACE. 


The  History  of  the  Northern  American  Indians  herewith 
made  public  by  The  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical 
Society  appeared  originally  in  the  regular  Quarterly  publications 
of  the  Society  for  January  and  April,  1910.  The  unique  in 
terest  and  value  presented  in  this  manuscript  of  David  Zeisberger 
is  such  that  the  members  of  the  Publication  Committee  of  the 
Society  felt  they  could  in  no  way  better  subserve  the  purpose 
of  the  Society  than  by  producing  this  historical  material  for  its 
patrons  and  the  general  public.  Some  two  years  ago  the  So 
ciety  learned  of  the  vast  and  rich  storehouse  of  original  manu 
scripts  preserved  by  the  Moravian  Church  at  its  national 
headquarters  in  Bethlehem,  Pa.  Visits  by  members  of  the  Ohio 
Society  to  Bethlehem  revealed  the  extent  of  the  historical  lore 
there  on  deposit.  Concerning  the  records  preserved  in  the  Mo 
ravian  Library  at  Bethlehem,  an  article  by  Prof.  Hulbert  appeared 
in  the  QUARTERLY  of  The  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  His 
torical  Society  for  April,  1909,  Volume  XVIII,  page  199.  Much 
of  the  material  in  this  library  consists  of  the  journals,  diaries 
and  records  of  the  Moravian  missionaries  to  the  American  In 
dians,  recounting  their  indefatigible  and  self-sacrificing  labor 
among  the  copper-colored  savages  of  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
Ohio,  Michigan,  and  even  Canada.  These  recitals  for  thrilling 
romance,  religious  devotion  and  incomparable  privation  are  sec 
ond  only  to  the  Relations  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers. 

Perhaps  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society 
never  rendered  a  more  valuable  service,  in  its  purpose  to  secure 
and  preserve  original  historical  data,  than  it  has  rendered  in 
the  present  publication.  The  Zeisberger  Indian  History  is  more 
than  a  contribution  at  first  hand  to  early  Ohio  chronicles ;  it 
not  only  throws  new  light  upon  the  character  and  customs  of  the 
aborigines,  but  it  imparts  such  an  additional  fund  of  knowledge 
to  the  period  in  question  that  it  gives  in  no  slight  degree  a  new 
coloring  to  some  phases  of  previously  accepted  history. 

The  Library  authorities  of  the  Moravian  Church,  at  Beth- 

i 


616 


ii  Ohio  Arch,  and  Hist.  Society  Publications. 

lehem,  generously  granted  permission  to  the  Ohio  Society  to 
translate  and  publish,  under  agreed  conditions,  such  portions  of 
the  Moravian  Archives  as  might  be  selected.  For  this  ines 
timable  privilege  the  officials  of  the  Ohio  Society  hereby  express 
their  appreciation  and  gratitude.  For  the  work  of  editing  and 
annotating  the  translations  the  services  of  Prof.  Archer  B.  Hul- 
bert  were  secured.  How  successfully  he  has  accomplished  his 
task  the  notes  following  the  text  of  the  manuscript  amply 
testify.  The  Society  is  also  most  fortunate  in  securing  the 
services  of  the  Rev.  William  Nathaniel  Schwarze,  Librarian  of 
the  Moravian  Archives  and  Professor  in  the  Moravian  Theo 
logical  Seminary,  as  the  translator  of  the  manuscripts  selected 
for  publication. 

E.  O.  RANDALL, 
Secretary   and   Editor   Ohio   State   Archaeological 

and  Historical  Society. 
April  i,  1910. 


DAVID    ZEISBERGER'S    HISTORY   OF   THE 
NORTHERN  AMERICAN  INDIANS, 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  present  volume  reproduces  the  manuscript  written  in 
German  by  the  Moravian  hero-missionary,  The  Reverend  David 
Zeisberger,  at  his  mission  home  beside  the  Muskingum  River,  in 
Ohio,  in  the  years  1779  and  1780. 

Though  there  is  extant  a  most  excellent  biography  of  this 
noble  man,  The  Life  and  Times  of  David  Zeisberger,  by  Bishop 
Edmund  De  Schweinitz  (Philadelphia,  1870),  very  little  is  popu 
larly  known  of  him. 

In  the  center  of  the  old  Black  Forest  of  America,  near  New 
Philadelphia,  Ohio,  a  half-forgotten  Indian  graveyard  lies  be 
side  the  dusty  country  road.  You  may  count  here  several  score 
of  graves  by  the  slight  mounds  of  earth  that  were  raised  above 
them  a  century  or  so  ago.  At  one  extremity  of  this  plot  of 
ground  an  iron  railing  incloses  another  grave  marked  by  a  plain 
marble  slab.  The  grave  is  David  Zeisberger's,  —  Moravian  Mis 
sionary  to  Indians  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan, 
and  Canada  for  fifty  active  years,  who  was  buried  at  this  spot 
at  his  dying  request,  that  he  might  await  the  Resurrection  among 
his  faithful  Indians.  His  record  is  perhaps  unequalled  in  point 
of  length  of  service  by  the  record  of  any  missionary  in  any  land. 

On  a  July  night  in  1726  a  man  and  his  wife  fled  from  their 
home  in  Austrian  Moravia  toward  the  mountains  on  the  border 
of  Saxony,  for  conscience'  sake.  They  took  with  them  nothing 
save  their  five-year-old  boy,  who  ran  stumbling  between  them, 
holding  to  their  hands.  The  family  of  three  remained  in  Saxony 
ten  years.  Then  the  parents  emigrated  to  America,  leaving  the 


2  David  Zeisberger's  History 

son  of  fifteen  years  in  Saxony  to  continue  his  education.  But 
within  a  year  he,  too,  took  passage  for  America,  and  joined  his 
parents  in  Georgia,  just  previous  to  their  removal  to  Bethlehem, 
Pennsylvania. 

The  lad  soon  became  interested  in  the  study  of  the  Dela 
ware  Indian  language  among  the  natives  of  that  tribe  living 
along  the  Susquehanna,  and  at  once  showed  proficiency.  Ap 
preciating  his  talent,  the  fathers  of  the  Moravian  Church  deter 
mined  to  send  the  young  man  to  Europe,  that  in  the  best  univer 
sities  he  might  secure  his  training.  He  went  as  far  as  New 
York.  There,  just  as  his  ship  was  to  sail,  he  pleaded  with  tears 
and  on  his  knees  to  be  allowed  to  return  to  the  woods  of  Penn 
sylvania  and  the  school  of  the  red  men  there.  The  words  of  the 
wise  were  overcome  by  those  of  the  youth,  and  an  earnest  soul, 
as  brave  as  it  was  earnest,  was  saved  to  a  life  of  unparalleled 
service  and  devotion. 

On  returning  to  Bethlehem,  Zeisberger  joined  a  class  that 
was  studying  the  Iroquois  tongue,  the  language  of  that  powerful 
nation  which  practically  controlled,  by  tomahawk  and  threat,  all 
the  territory  between  the  colonies  and  the  Mississippi.  Soon 
the  looked-for  opportunity  of  visiting  the  Iroquois'  land  came, 
and  the  young  student  (who  had  been  enrolled  in  the  class  of 
candidates  as  David  Zeisburger,  destinirter  Heidenbote)  was  told 
off  to  accompany  the  heroic  Frederick  Christian  Post.  This 
was  in  the  dark  year  1745,  only  a  few  months  previous  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  old  French  war.  The  youth  was  now  in  his 
twenty-fourth  year. 

In  February  of  the  next  year  after  these  two  men  entered 
the  shadow  of  old  New  York,  the  report  was  circulated  in  New 
York  City  that  two  spies  had  been  captured  among  the  Iro 
quois,  who  were  guilty  of  attempting  to  win  that  nation  over  to 
the  French.  Such  a  charge  at  this  time  was  the  most  serious 
imaginable,  for  the  contest  for  the  friendship  of  the  Iroquois 
between  the  French  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  English  on  the 
Atlantic  had  become  of  great  importance.  Upon  that  friendship, 
and  the  support  it  guaranteed,  seemed  to  hang  the  destiny  of  the 
Continent.  The  rumor  created  endless  consternation,  and  the 


North  American  Indians.  3 

spies  were  hurried  on  to  Governor  Clinton.  Their  trial  resulted 
in  imprisonment  for  six  weeks,  until  the  two  were  freed  by  an 
ordinance  passed  by  Parliament  exempting  the  missionaries  of 
the  Moravian  Church  from  taking  oath  to  the  British  Crown. 
Such  was  Zeisberger's  first  experience. 

Back  to  the  Iroquois  land  journeyed  the  liberated  prisoner, 
and  for  ten  doubtful  years,  until  1755,  Zeisberger  was  engaged 
in  learning  the  languages  of  the  various  tribes  of  the  Six  Na 
tions,  and  in  active  missionary  service.  His  success  was  great. 
Perhaps  in  all  the  history  of  this  famous  Indian  Nation  there 
was  no  other  man,  with  the  exception  of  Sir  William  Johnson, 
whom  they  trusted  as  much  as  they  trusted  David  Zeisberger. 
Cheated  on  the  one  hand  by  the  Dutch  of  New  York  and  robbed 
on  the  other  by  the  agents  of  the  Dutch  and  the  English,  the 
Iroquois  became  suspicious  of  all  men ;  and  it  is  vastly  more 
than  a  friendly  compliment  to  record  that  in  his  mission-house 
at  Onondaga,  they  placed  the  entire  archives  of  their  nation, 
comprising  possibly  the  most  valuable  collection  of  treaties  and 
letters  from  colonial  governors  ever  made  by  an  Indian  nation 
on  this  continent.  But  war  now  drove  the  missionary  away,  as 
throughout  his  life  war  was  ever  to  dash  his  fondest  dreams  and 
ever  to  drive  him  back. 

Between  1745  -and  1750  Zeisberger  labored  in  New  York, 
at  Shamokin  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  the  valley  of  Wyoming; 
in  1750  he  went  to  the  Iroquois  land  with  Cammerhoff ;  he  then 
visited  Europe  but  returned  immediately  and  was  a  resident  at 
Onondaga  until  the  old  French  war  opened  in  1755;  he  was  at 
Friedenshiitten  in  1765  and  1766;  in  the  year  following 
he  crossed  the  mountains  for  the  first  time  and  met  the 
Delawares  on  the  Allegheny  River;  in  1768  and  1769  he  was 
stationed  in  western  Pennsylvania  at  Goschgoschiink,  and  at 
Lawanakhannek  in  1769  and  1770;  in  the  latter  year  his  work 
carried  him  to  the  Beaver  River ;  a  year  later  he  advanced  to 
the  Muskingum  River  in  Ohio  where  the  three  well-known 
Moravian  mission  stations  were  built,  Gnadenhiitten,  Lichtenau 
and  Schoenbriinn ;  from  now  until  1781  he  lived  among  the 
Delawares,  though  visiting  the  savage  Shawanese  in  the  Scioto 


4  David  Zeisberger's  History 

on  at  least  one  occasion;  in  1781  his  mission  was  broken  up  by 
the  British  renegades  and  the  missionary  was  driven  with  his 
flock  to  Sandusky.  Now,  in  1781,  begins  the  Diary  of  David 
Zeisberger,  edited  by  Eugene  F.  Bliss  (Cincinnati,  1885)  which 
has  been  the  only  work  published  in  English  of  Zeisberger's. 

The  record  of  Zeisberger's  resolute  faithfulness  to  the  rem 
nant  of  his  church  from  this  time  onward  is  almost  incredible. 
Like  a  Moses  he  led  them  always,  and  first  to  a  temporary  home 
Macomb  County,  Michigan.  From  there  they  were  in  four  years 
removed  by  the  Chippewas.  The  forlorn  pilgrims  now  set  sail 
in  two  sloops  on  Lake  Erie ;  they  took  refuge  from  a  terrible 
storm  in  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  River.  For  a  time  they 
rested  at  a  temporary  home  in  Independence  Township,  Cuya 
hoga  County,  Ohio.  Famine  drove  them  in  turn  from  here.  Set 
ting  out  on  foot,  Zeisberger  led  them  next  along  the  shore  of 
Lake  Erie  westward  to  the  present  site  of  Milan,  Erie  County, 
Ohio.  Here  they  resided  until  the  outbreak  of  the  savage  Indian 
War  of  1791.  To  escape  from  this  Zeisberger  secured  from  the 
British  Government  a  tract  of  land  twelve  miles  long  and  six 
miles  wide  for  the  Moravian  Indians  beside  the  Grand  River  in 
Canada.  Here  the  pilgrims  remained  six  years.  But  with  the 
close  of  the  Indian  War,  it  was  possible  for  them  to  return  to 
their  beloved  home  in  the  Tuscarawas  Valley.  The  United 
States  had  given  to  the  Moravian  Church  two  tracts  of  land 
here,  embracing  the  sites  of  the  three  towns  formerly  built,  con 
taining  in  all  twelve  thousand  acres. 

Back  to  the  old  home  the  patriarch  Zeisberger  brought  his 
little  company  in  the  year  1798.  His  first  duty  amid  the  scene 
of  the  terrible  Gnadenhiitten  Massacre  was  not  forgotten.  With 
a  bowed  head  and  heavy  heart  the  old  man  and  one  assistant 
gathered  from  beneath  the  dense  mass  of  bush  and  vine,  whither 
the  wild  beasts  had  carried  them,  the  bones  of  the  ninety  and 
more  sacrificed  Christians,  and  over  their  present  resting-place 
one  of  the  proudest  of  monuments  now  rises.  For  full  ten 
years  more  this  hero  labored  in  the  shadow  of  the  forests  where 
his  happiest  days  had  been  spent,  and  only  as  the  winter  of  1808 


North  American  Indians.  5 

came  down  upon  the  valley  from  the  lakes  did  his  great  heart 
cease  beating  and  his  spirit  pass  through  the  heavenly  gates. 

Zeisberger's  eminent  comrades,  John  Heckewelder  and  Ben 
jamin  Mortimer,  thus  speak  of  his  character  :* 

"He  was  endowed  with  a  good  understanding  and  a  sound  judg 
ment;  a  friend  and  benefactor  to  mankind,  and  justly  beloved  by  all 
who  knew  him,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  those  who  are  enemies 
of  the  Gospel  which  he  preached.  His  reticence  was  the  result  of  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  his  life.  He  undertook  many  solitary  journeys, 
and,  in  the  first  half  of  his  life,  lived  at  places  where  there  either  was 
no  society,  or  such  as  was  not  congenial.  Hence  he  withdrew  within 
himself,  and  lived  in  a  close  communion  with  his  unseen  but  ever  present 
heavenly  Friend.  In  all  his  views  he  was  very  thorough,  not  impulsive, 
not  suffering  himself  to  be  carried  away  by  extraneous  influences,  not 
giving  an  opinion  until  lie  had  come  to  a  positive  and  settled  conclusion 
in  his  own  mind.  Experience  invariably  proved  the  correctness  of  his 
judgment.  To  this  the  missionaries  who  served  with  him  all  bear  witness. 
Receiving,  as  it  were,  a  glimpse  of  the  future,  through  the  deep  thoughts 
and  silent  prayers  in  which  he  engaged,  he  stood  up,  on  most  occasions, 
full  of  confidence,  and  knew  no  fear.  Amid  distressing  and  perilous 
circumstances,  not  only  his  fellow-missionaries,  but  the  Indian  converts, 
invari'ably  looked  to  him ;  and  his  courage,  his  undaunted  readiness  to 
act,  his  comforting  words  cheered  them  all.  He  would  never  consent 
to  have  his  name  put  down  on  a  salary-list,  or  become  a  'hireling',  as 
he  termed  it ;  saying,  that  although  a  salary  might  be  both  agreeable 
and  proper  for  some  missionaries,  yet  in  his  case  it  would  be  the  con 
trary.  He  had  devoted  himself  to  the  service  of  the  Lord  among  the 
heathen  without  any  view  of  a  reward,  other  than  such  as  his  Lord 
and  Master  might  deign  to  bestow  upon  him". 

"Zeisberger  was  fully  convinced  that  his  vocation  to  preach  the 
Gospel  to  the  Indians  and  spread  the  kingdom  of  God  was  of  divine 
origin,  and  therefore  he  sacrificed  all  vanities  of  the  world,  all  conveni 
ence,  and  whatever  is  highly  esteemed  among  men,  and  took  up  the 
mission  of  his  life  in  strong  faith,  relying  upon  the  blessing  and  aid  of 
that  Lord  whom  he  served,  and  with  joyous  courage,  in  the  midst  of 
scorn  and  reproach,  persecutions  and  menaces,  hunger  and  perils,  triumph 
ing  at  last,  in  spite  of  every  foe.  His  work  was  distinguished  by  perse 
verance,  faithfulness,  zeal,  and  courage.  Nothing  afforded  him  more 
satisfaction  than  the  genuine  conversion  of  those  to  whom  he  preached. 
This  was  the  highest  goal  of  his  ambition.  If  he  could  gain  one  soul, 
and  bring  it  to  a  saving  knowledge  of  Christ,  it  was  for  him  a  more 
precious  gift  than  if  he  had  come  into  possession  of  the  whole  world. 

*  De  Schweinitz  Life  of  Zeisberger. 


6  David  Zeisberger's  History 

To  describe  the  joy  he  experienced  when  an  erring  sheep  returned  to 
the  fold  is  impossible.  In  his  ministry  he  neither  forgot  that  he  had 
to  contend  with  'the  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air,  the  spirit  that 
worketh  in  the  children  of  disobedience',  nor  that  God  was  on  his  side. 
And,  truly,  he  did  overcome  Satan,  in  an  illustrious  way,  by  the  blood 
of  the  Lamb,  and  by  the  word  of  his  testimony;  and  loved  not  his  life 
unto  the  death.  He  was  not  only  bold  in  God,  fearless  and  full  of 
courage,  but  also  lowly  of  heart,  meek  of  spirit,  never  thinking  highly 
of  himself.  Selfishness  was  unknown  to  him.  His  heart  poured  out  a 
stream  of  love  to  his  fellowmen.  In  spite  of  his  constant  journeys  and 
exposure,  he  never  needlessly  sacrified  his  health.  His  whole  bearing 
was  extremely  venerable.  He  was  an  affectionate  husband ;  a  faithful 
and  ever-reliable  friend.  In  a  word,  his  character  was  upright,  honest, 
loving,  and  noble,  as  free  from  faults  as  can  be  expected  of  any  man 
this  side  of  the  grave". 

The  original  manuscript  comprising  the  present  volume  is 
preserved  in  the  Moravian  Archives  at  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania ; 
it  has  been  followed  literally  by  Professor  Schwarze  in  making 
the  excellent  translation.  Though  lacking  many  features  of 
careful  composition,  the  original  bears  everywhere  the  evidences 
of  calm,  straight-forward,  well-founded  narrative.  Being  a  man 
of  singularly  unselfish  devotion  and  with  great  ability  to  focus 
his  energies  upon  efforts  that  made  up  his  life-work,  Zeisberger 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  Indian  languages  to  such  pur 
pose  that  he  mastered  the  Delaware  language  and  the  Onondaga 
dialect  of  the  Iroquois,  the  two  most  important  languages  of  the 
North  American  Indians,  and  was  able  to  do  much  for  their 
development.  He  learned  to  know  the  Indians.  He  was  not 
troubled  with  any  misleading  or  romantic  notions  about  the 
character  and  traits  of  these  men  of  the  woods.  His  knowledge 
of  the  manners,  customs,  character,  and  country  of  the  Indians 
was  perfected  by  his  travels,  study,  observation,  and  uninter 
rupted  labors. 

All  this  argues  the  credibility  of  his  narrative.  Indeed, 
careful  consideration  will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  as  the  story 
is  given  simply  without  aspiration  to  rhetorical  embellishment, 
it  is  also  clear  and  well-founded  in  its  testimony.  Zeisberger 
always  uses  calm  and  deliberate  language,  whether  treating  of 
the  degradation  and  moral  deformity  of  the  savages,  or  of  their 
redeeming  traits.  He  really  loved  the  Indians,  spent  his  life  in 


North  American  Indians.  7 

the  effort  to  do  them  good,  and  he  gives  dispassionately  and 
honestly  what  he  had  abundant  opportunity  to  learn  of  their 
character,  customs  and  country. 

The  name  of  this  volume,  ''History  of  the  Indians,"  was 
not  given  to  the  manuscript  by  its  author,  but,  by  the  Bishop 
De  Schweinitz.  Zeisberger,  had  he  named  it,  would  probably 
have  called  it,  "Notes  on  the  History,  Life,  Manners,  and  Cus 
toms  of  the  Indians/'  and  the  most  casual  reader  will  recognize 
from  the  mode  of  presentation  and  the  occasional  repetitions  that 
the  manuscript  is  in  the  form  of  notes.  It  has  seemed  best,  how 
ever,  to  reproduce  it  verbatim  as  written.  The  complete  ana 
lytical  index  will  fully  make  up  for  irregularity  in  arrangement 
and  the  lack  of  proper  ordering  of  the  material. 

This  manuscript,  of  upwards  of  eighty  thousand  words,  was 
evidently  written  for  the  Rev.  Henry  Loskiel  to  aid  him  in  the 
preparation  of  his  most  valuable  History  of  the  Mission  of  the 
United  Brethren  among  the  Indians  of  North  America,  Deriv 
ing  his  material  from  various  sources,  and  writing  inclusively  of 
all  the  American  Indians,  Loskiel  made  less  use  of  Zeisberger's 
manuscript  than  one  would  suppose,  possibly  incorporating,  in  one 
form  or  another,  one-third  of  this  manuscript  and  giving  very 
slight  recognition  of  the  source  of  information.  Moreover,  writing 
as  one  who  had  little  first-hand  knowledge  of  his  subject,  many 
facts  told  by  the  venerable  missionary  of  a  certain  Indian  tribe 
lost,  under  Loskiel's  treatment,  much  of  their  value,  especially, 
when  represented  as  though  true  of  the  typical  American  Indian. 
The  result  is  that  these  pages  from  Zeisberger's  pen,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  editors,  give  the  most  reliable  and  accurate  description  in 
existence  of  the  Indians  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio, 
written  by  one  intimately  acquainted  with  them.  Lacking  the 
polish  and  general  literary  excellence  of  his  comrade  John  Hecke- 
welder's  History,  the  student  perusing  the  two  will  surely  agree 
that  for  solid  information  given  in  simple  straight-forward  style, 
the  Zeisberger  notes  take  first  rank  as  a  work  of  value.  For 
instance,  Zeisberger  was  practically  uninfluenced  by  the  appall 
ing  superstitions  of  the  savages :  the  shams  and  frauds  of  their 
impotent  sorcerers  made  but  little  impression  on  the  rugged 
sense  of  the  faithful  missionary ;  so  much  so  that  one  cannot 


8  David  Zeisbergcr's  History 

read  the  few  sentences  which  imply  a  deviation  from  this  steady 
attitude  without  grewsome  sensations. 

The  antiquarian  and  archaeologist  will  find  in  this  volume 
interesting  additional  proof  of  the  relationship  of  the  so-called 
"Moundbuilders"  and  the  earlier  Indians,  the  implication  being 
exceedingly  strong  that  they  were  one  and  the  same  race ;  the 
reference  to  mounds,  arrow-heads,  stone  hatchets,  etc.,  etc.,  being 
illuminating. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  Zeisberger's  attitude  toward  the 
Indian  legends,  especially  that  of  Iroquois'  conquest  of  the  Dela- 
wares.  It  was  only  proper  that  this  historian  should  include  in 
his  narrative  the  legends  which  were  told  to  him ;  that  he  did 
not  examine  them  critically  and  pass  upon  their  accuracy  dogmat 
ically  is  not,  in  the  opinion  of  the  editors,  a  discredit  to  him.  Ban 
ished  as  he  voluntarily  was  from  every  access  to  reliable  his 
torical  information,  and  overwhelmed  with  the  great  tasks  he 
patiently  set  himself  to  perform,  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  of 
his  even  attempting  to  examine  the  myths  that  were  told  him  by 
the  lips  of  his  red  skinned  brethren.  It  would  be  only  fair,  then, 
to  the  writer  of  this  admirable  work,  for  the  reader  mentally  to 
insert,  as  these  legends  are  recounted,  the  words  "It  is  said," 
"they  say,"  or  "they  believe,"  etc.,  for  the  spirit  of  the  author 
never  warrants  our  believing  that  he  received  them  without  ques 
tion.  Zeisberger  did  not  express  himself  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
warrant  the  unqualified  statement,  as  we  elsewhere  note,  made  by 
the  careful  Parkman,  that  he  (Zeisberger)  put  faith  in  the  story 
of  a  deceptive  conquest  of  the  Delawares  by  the  Iroquois. 

For  a  considerable  mass  of  new  facts  concerning  the  life 
and  character  of  the  Indians  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and 
Ohio,  of  their  treatment  of  each  other,  of  the  married  relation 
ship,  of  the  treatment  of  children,  of  home  life  and  of  political 
affairs,  the  student  will  look  in  vain  outside  of  this  Zeisberger 
manuscript.  Its  author  wrote  from  an  experience  covering 
almost  uninterruptedly  the  period  from  1745  to  1778.  The 
story  of  his  life  during  those  years  should  be  read  in  De 
Schweinitz's  excellent  volume ;  no  clear  understanding  of  Ohio's 
history,  especially  in  the  Revolutionary  period,  is  possible  without 
knowing  this  volume.  It  is  proper  to  note  here  a  significant  fact : 


North  American  Indians.  9 

Zeisberger's  mature  acquaintance  with  the  redmen  came  in  those 
years  just  preceding  and  succeeding  Pontiac's  Rebellion;  these 
were  the  years  of  dissolution,  the  years  when  the  influences  of 
civilization  and  the  coming  of  the  European  completed  the  over 
throw  of  the  Indian,  his  family  life,  his  state,  his  ancient  code 
of  laws  and  social  customs.  In  effect  Pontiac  said,  "After  me 
the  deluge  ;"  when  the  Revolutionary  War  came  on,  the  redman 
of  the  Middle  West  was  as  different,  compared  with  his  grand 
father  as  we  of  the  Twentieth  Century  differ  from  what  our 
great-grandfathers  were.  One  of  the  most  valuable  features  of 
Zeisberger's  History  lies  just  here.  Having  intimately  known 
the  Indian  in  transformation  —  the  Indian  that,  though  taking 
the  musket  and  the  axe  and  the  blanket,  was  looking  back  won- 
deringly  at  the  bow  and  stone  ax  and  the  feather-and-hemp  cover 
ing  —  he  is  continually  giving  us  precious  glimpses,  as  accurate 
as  they  are  rare,  of  the  primeval  redman.  This  series  of  facts 
concerning  these  first  Americans  makes  Zeisberger's  manuscript 
of  more  than  ordinary  value  for  his  attitude  is  very  largely  that 
of  a  man  looking  backward ;  no  other  writer  of  his  time  main 
tains  such  an  attitude  or  has  left  us  a  record  of  equal  minute 
ness  relating  to  the  region  covered. 

On  reading  his  manuscript  one  is  inclined  to  believe  thor 
oughly  in  Zeisberger's  proposition  that  no  one  could  get  at  the 
real  facts  concerning  the  inner  life  of  the  redmen  unless  engaged 
in  the  work  of  converting  them. 

Lastly,  yet  of  great  importance,  is  the  scientific  information 
contained  in  the  manuscript.  Through  the  able  assistance  of  Dr. 
Arthur  Magnum  Banta,  of  the  Carnegie  Station  for  Experi 
mental  Evolution,  the  full  scientific  value  of  Zeisberger's  com 
ment  and  description  may  be  appreciated  by  the  reader.  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  biologist,  for  instance,  the  manuscript  seems 
to  be  reliable  and  is  extremely  interesting.  It  shows  intrinsic 
evidence  of  being  a  reliable  and  careful  account  of  the  various 
animals  and  plants  which  the  author  observed  with  interest  and 
about  which  he  learned  various  facts  as  well  as  fancies  from  the 
Indians.  Zeisberger  has  stated  nothing  which  he  did  not  sup 
pose  to  be  true,  and  the  few  fanciful  statements  are  easily  recog 
nized  since  they  are  such  as  would  today  be  found  in  any  lay- 


10  David  Zeisberger's  History 

man's  account  of  natural  things  about  him.  Written  by  a  man 
not  a  biologist  the  manuscript  could  not  be  other  than  an  hon 
est  and  in  the  main  conservative  account  or  it  would  show 
inconsistencies  which  could  not  have  been  appreciated  by  its 
author.  No  such  inconsistencies  appear.  The  chief  scientific 
interest  in  the  manuscript  arises  from  the  fact  that  it  depicts 
conditions  before  the  white  settlers  came  into  the  Middle  West, 
and  before  the  ax,  the  rifle  and  the  steel  trap  had  seriously  inter 
fered  with  primitive  natural  conditions  such  as  had  existed  from 
time  immemorial.  The  changes  in  the  animal  and  plant  life  since 
the  author  wrote  are,  of  course,  most  sweeping.  The  account 
has  its  great  interest  and  value  because  it  is  the  only  reliable 
record  of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  region  before  such  marked 
changes  occurred. 

For  the  opinions  expressed  and  views  taken  in  the  footnotes 
of  this  volume,  as  well  as  errors  therein,  the  writer  is  personally 
responsible. 

Zeisberger's  published  works  include  the  Diary  above  men 
tioned  ;  Essay  of  a  Delaware  Indian  and  English  Spelling  Book 
for  the  use  of  the  Schools  of  the  Christian  Indians  on  Mus- 
kingum  River  (Philadelphia,  1776)  ;  A  Collection  of  Hymns  for 
the  use  of  the  Christian  Indians,  of  the  Missions  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  North  America  (Philadelphia,  1803)  5  Sermons  to 
Children  (Philadelphia,  1803)  ;  Avg.  Gottl  Spangenberg.  Some 
thing  of  Bodily  Care  for  Children  (Philadelphia,  1803)  ;  The 
History  of  our  Lord  and  Savior  Jesus  Christ,  by  the  Rev.  Sam 
uel  Lieberkiihn,  M.  A.  (Tr.  by  Zeisberger).  The  above  are  in 
the  Delaware  language.  Zeisberger's  Verbal  Biegungen  der 
Chippewayer  [Delawaren]  was  published  in  Vater's  Analekten 
der  Sprachkunde  (Leipzig,  1821). 

Zeisberger's  manuscripts  are  numerous  and  include  Deutsch 
und  Onondagaisches  Worterbuch,  Essay  toward  an  Onondaga 
Grammar,  Onondagaische  Grammatica  (translated  into  English 
by  Peter  S.  Duponcear,  LL.  D.,  still  in  Mss.),  A  Grammar  of  the 
Lenni-Lenape,  or  Delaware  Indians  (also  translated  by  Dr. 
Duponcear.  in  Mss.),  A  Dictionary  in  German  and  Delaware, 
Delaware  Glossary,  Delaware  Vocabulary,  Phrases  and  Vocab 
ularies  in  Delaware,  Delaware  Grammar,  Harmony  of  the  Cos- 


North  American  Indians.  11 

pels  in  Delaivare,  Hymns  for  the  Christian  Indian^  in  Delaware, 
Litany  and  Liturgies  in  Delaware,  Zeisberger's  own  Mss.  Hymn 
Book  in  Delaware,  Sermons  by  Zeisberger  in  Delaware,  Seven 
teen  Sermons  to  Children,  Church  Litany  in  Delaware,  Short 
Biblical  Narratives  in  Delaware,  Vocabulary  in  Maqua  and 
Delaware.  The  last  fourteen  Mss.  were  collected  by  Edward 
Everett  and  are  preserved  in  the  Harvard  University  Library ; 
the  remaining  Zeisberger  material  is  in  the  Moravian  archives  at 
Bethlehem.  Here,  too,  are  preserved  Zeisberger's  diaries  and 
letters  covering  his  long  career  on  the  frontier  and  possessing 
very  great  historical  value.  These  include  the  narration  of  his 
arrest  in  New  York,  of  his  journeys  with  Cammerhoff,  Mack 
and  Spangenberg,  of  his  stay  at  Onondaga,  1755,  his  journals 
of  1762-67,  including  his  journal  of  the  trip  to  the  Cayuga  town 
in  1766  and  to  Goschgoschimg  in  1767,  the  journal  of  his  trip 
to  the  Allegheny,  1767-8,  and  the  diaries  and  letters  covering 
his  whole  Ohio,  Michigan  and  Canadian  experiences,  1771-1808. 
It  is  expected  to  issue  a  collection  of  Zeisberger's  unpublished 
diaries,  journals  and  letters  as  Volume  Two  of  The  Moravian 
Records. 

ARCHER  BUTLER  HULBERT. 

Marietta  College,  Marietta,  Ohio. 
December  10,  1909. 


12  David  Zeisberger's  History 

A   HISTORY  OF  THE   INDIANS. 


The  North  American  Indians  are  of  middle  size,  well  built, 
straight,  light-footed,  well  adapted  for  travel  through  the  forest, 
much  of  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  do  no  heavy  work, 
but  support  themselves  by  the  chase.1  Their  color  is  brown,  but 
of  different  shades.  Some  are  light  brown,  hardly  to  be  distin 
guished  from  a  brown  European,  did  not  their  eyes  and  hair  be 
tray  them.  Again,  others  are  so  dark  that  they  differ  little  from  mu- 
lattoes.2  Their  hair  is  jet-black  and  coarse,  almost  like  the  hair 
of  a  horse's  mane.3  Their  heads  become  gray  or  even  white  in 
old  age,  otherwise  they  are  without  exception,  black.  The  men 
rarely  let  the  hair  grow  long,  and  it  is  common  practice  among 
them,  though  the  custom  is  obsolescent,  that  they  root  out  the  hair 
from  the  forehead  backward  so  that  the  head  is  bald  up  to  the 
crown  and  only  a  hand-breadth  of  it  in  circular  form  is  suffered 
to  remain,  whence  in  the  case  of  savages  generally  depend  long 
braids,  one  on  either  side,  closely  plaited  and  bound  by  bracelets 
of  coral,  some,  also,  hanging  silver  upon  them.  It  is  a  very 
common  that  they  wear  a  plume  of  feathers  on  the  middle  of 
the  head,  rising  straight  up  or  hanging  downward.  They  fre 
quently  cut  the  helix  of  the  ear,  leaving  the  upper  and  lower 
ends  intact  and  then  hang  bits  of  lead  to  it  so  that  it  is  stretched. 
Then  this  curved  border  of  the  auricle  is  bound  with  brass  wire, 
distending  it  considerably,  and  decorated  with  silver  ornaments. 
Among-  Indians  who  have  come  in  contact  with  whites  this  is 
less  often  done.  They,  also,  pierce  the  nose  and  adorn  it  with 
silver.  The  beard  is  rooted  out  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  gro\v. 
The  men  tattoo  their  bodies  in  arm,  leg  or  face  with  all  manner 
of  figures,  serpents,  birds  or  other  animals,  which  are  marked 
out  by  pricking  the  skin  with  a  needle,  powder  or  soot  being 
afterward  rubbed  into  the  punctures.  Occasionally,  the  women 
mark  their  bodies  thus.  The  women  let  the  hair  grow  long, 
so  that  it  sometimes  reaches  to  the  knees ;  they  do  not  braid  it 
but  tie  a  cloth  around  it.  The  Mingoes,4  Shawano5  and  Wion- 
datoo6  women  have  a  long  braid  reaching  the  hips,  bound  in  cloth 


North  American  Indians.  13 

and  red  ribbon,  in  the  case  of  the  rich,  being  further  adorned 
with  silver  clasps  of  considerable  weight  from  top  to  bottom. 
The  Delawares,  also,  do  this,  though  not  so  generally.  The 
women  wear  earrings  of  wampum,  coral  or  silver. 

The  men  hunt,  secure  meat  for  the  household,  clothing  for 
their  wives  and  children,  getting  it  in  exchange  for  hides,  build 
houses  or  huts,  and  also  help  their  wives  clear  the  land  for  cultiva 
tion  and  build  fences  around  it.  The  duties  of  the  women  are 
cooking,  finding  fire-wood,  planting  and  reaping.  They  plant 
corn,  principally,  making  of  this  their  bread,  which  is  baked  in 
the  ashes,  and  preparing  with  it  varipus  dishes.  Besides,  they 
raise  pumpkins  of  various  kinds,  potatoes,  beans  and  other  vege 
tables,  which  they  have  learned  to  know  through  the  whites, 
such  as  cabbage,  turnips,  etc.7 

The  best  time  for  the  chase  is  in  the  fall,  when  the  game 
is  fat  and  the  hides  are  good.  Hence,  they  commonly  in  Sep 
tember  and  October  go  hunting  with  their  families,  remaining 
afield  until  the  New  Year  or  longer,  though  after  that  the  skins 
cannot  be  used.  Elk  and  buffalo  they  shoot  little  and  rarely,  as 
the  hides  are  too  heavy  and  of  little  value,  and  if  they  shoot 
one  of  these  animals  now  and  again,  most  of  the  meat  is  left  lying 
in  the  woods,  where  it  is  consumed  by  wolves,  or  other  wild  ani 
mals  or  birds.  The  deer,  which  are  most  sought  and  are  larger 
than  the  European  roe,  have  the  best  skins  and  are  most  valued 
by  the  Europeans.  After  the  New  Year  they  devote  themselves 
to  the  catching  of  the  beaver,  the  raccoon,  the  fox  and  other  fur- 
yielding  animals  ;  they  also  hunt  the  bear,  at  that  time  very  fat, 
as  a  rule,  and  hibernating  in  dens,  hollow7  trees  or  rocks  or  thick 
ets  and  eating  nothing  for  two  or  three  months  except  that  they 
suck  their  paws  and  are  nourished  by  the  fat  they  have  acquired 
in  the  fall  from  consuming  acorns,  chestnuts,  various  other  nuts, 
etc.  Hunting  of  this  nature  lasts  until  spring,  when  in  May 
their  time  for  planting  begins.  In  ^  February  sugar-boiling  be 
gins,  farther  north  in  March.8  This  is  the  work  of  the  women, 
the  men  continuing  the  chase.  When  planting  time  is  past,  the 
summer  chase  begins  at  the  end  of  June  or  the  beginning  of 
July,  when  the  deer  take  on  a  reddish  hue  and  the  pelts  are  again 
good  and  fit  for  trade.  The  deer  change  their  color  twice  in  the 


14  David  Zeisberger's  History 

year.  After  spring-time  they  become  red  and  the  hair  is  thin.  In 
September  they  turn  gray  or  fallow,  when  their  color  is  like  that 
of  the  trees  in  the  woods.  The  fur  becomes  very  thick,  being  the 
winter  coat.  Farther  north  the  game  is  larger ;  farther  south  it 
is  smaller.  In  the  region  of  Onondago9  and  at  the  lakes  the 
deer  are  considerably  larger  than  here  along  the  Muskingum, 
and  in  the  country  of  the  Shawanose,  about  two  hundred  miles 
from  here,9%  markedly  smaller,  which  makes  a  difference  in  trade. 
The  Indians  who  really  devote  themselves  to  the  chase,  and  this  is 
the  principal  occupation  and  business  of  the  savages,  are  at  home 
but  a  small  part  of  the  year,  spending  most  of  the  time  in  the 
forest.  Those,  on  the  other  hand,  who  come  to  Christ  and  join 
the  church,  turn  to  agriculture  and  raising  stock,  keeping  cattle, 
hogs  and  fowls.  They,  also,  go  on  the  chase  for  three  or  four 
weeks  in  the  fall,  though  never  far  from  home,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  able  to  use  the  meat ;  they  secure  their  clothing  in 
exchange  for  the  skins. 

Because  the  savages  are  accustomed  to  go  about  in  the 
forest,  which  is  their  greatest  delight,  they  do  not  care  to  keep 
cattle,  for  in  that  case  they  must  remain  at  home  to  look  after 
it  and  are  prevented  from  going  into  the  forest.  Some  have 
secured  cattle,  for  they  are  very  fond  of  milk10  and  butter. 

Food  which  they  prepare  must  be  well  cooked  and  well  done ; 
they  do  not  like  anything  rare  or  raw.  Meat  and  even  fish  must 
be  so  thoroughly  cooked  that  they  fall  apart. 

Concerning  the  chase  in  general,  as  engaged  in  by  the 
Indians,  it  should  yet  be  noticed  that,  because  there  is  consider 
able  trade  in  skins,  deer  are  killed  mainly  for  their  hides  and 
only  so  much  of  the  flesh  is  used  as  the  Indians  can  consume 
while  on  the  chase,  wherefore,  most  of  the  meat  is  left  in  the 
woods  for  the  wild  animals,  which  the  wolves,  especially,  seem 
to  know,  for  these  animals  take  advantage  of  the  hunting  season 
and  move  in  the  direction  of  much  shooting;  they  follow  the 
report  of  the  guns  and,  when  the  huntsman  has  skinned  the 
deer,  consume  the  carcass.  The  Indians  rarely  shoot  a  wolf,  the 
skin  of  this  animal  being  of  little  value.  As  an  Indian  shoots 
from  fifty  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  deer  each  fall,  it  can  easily  be 
appreciated  that  game  must  decrease. 


North  American  Indians.  15 

Their  dress  is  light;  they  do  not  hang  much  clothing  upon 
themselves.  If  an  Indian  has  a  Match-coat,  that  is  a  blanket 
of  the  smaller  sort,  a  shirt  and  brich  clout11  and  a  pair  of  leg- 
gins,  he  thinks  himself  well  dressed.  In  place  of  a  blanket,  those 
who  are  in  comfortable  circumstances  and  wish  to  be  well 
dressed,  wear  a  strowd,  i.  e.,  two  yards  of  blue,  red  or  black 
cloth  which  they  throw  lightly  over  themselves  and  arrange  much 
as  they  would  a  Match-coat.  Trousers  they  do  not  wear ;  but 
their  hose,  reaching  considerably  above  the  knee  and  held  to 
gether  by  a  piece  of  strowd  and  extending  only  to  the  feet,  to 
some  extent  supply  the  place  of  trousers.  If  they  desire  to  go 
in  state,  they  wear  such  hose  with  a  silken  stripe  extending 
from  top  to  bottom  and  bordered  with  white  coral.  Their  shoes 
are  made  of  deer  skin,  which  they  prepare  themselves,  the  women 
being  particularly  skilled  in  doing  this  and  in  working  all  man 
ner  of  designs  ;  Mingoe  women  excel  all  others  in  this  particular. 
Some  wear  hats  or  caps  secured  in  trading  with  the  whites ; 
others  do  not  cover  themselves  but  go  bare-headed. 

Women  are  distinguished  in  dress  only  in  this  respect,  that 
instead  of  a  coat  they  wear  a  strowd  over  the  hips  bound  about 
the  body  next  the  skin,  removed  neither  day  nor  night  and  ex 
tending  but  little  beyond  the  knees.  They  anoint  the  hair  liber 
ally  with  bear's  fat,  so  that  it  shines.  Their  adornment  consists 
in  hanging  much  wampum,  coral  and  silver  about  their  necks 
and  it  is  not  unusual  for  them  to  have  great  belts  of  wampum 
depending  from  the  neck.  Their  shirts  and  strowds  they  adorn 
with  many  silver  buckles.  It  is  also  customary  for  them  to  sew 
red,  yellow  or  black  ribbon  on  their  coats  from  top  to  bottom, 
being  very  fond  of  bright  things. 

Men  as  well  as  women  wear  silver  bracelets,  and  the  latter 
also  arrange  silver  clasps  in  their  hair  or  wear  a  band  about  the 
head  with  as  many  silver  ornaments  on  it  as  it  will  hold.  All 
these  things  they  secure  from  the  whites,  principally  from  traders 
who  in  times  of  peace  bring  their  wares  to  the  Indian  towns  to 
exchange  for  skins  and  pelts.  In  course  of  such  occupation 
many  traders  have,  in  the  event  of  Indian  wars,  lost  all  their 
goods  and  even  their  lives. 


16  David  Zeisberger's  History 

In  the  matter  of  House-keeping  and  Domestic  Arrange 
ments,  it  seems  to  be  established  that  what  a  man  secures  in  the 
chase  belongs  to  his  wife;  as  soon  as  he  brings  skins  and  flesh 
home  he  no  longer  regards  them  as  his  own,  but  as  property  of 
his  wives.  On  the  other  hand  what  the  woman  has  gained  in 
planting  and  harvesting  is  for  the  husband  and  she  must  provide 
for  him  everything  that  he  needs  in  the  chase.  Yet  I  have 
observed  that  this  is  not  invariably  the  case,  for  some  men  keep 
the  skins,  and  buy  for  the  women  and  children  such  clothes 
with  them  as  they  need  and  do  not  permit  them  to  suffer  want. 
Cattle  belong  to  women,  horses  to  men,  though  a  man  may  give 
his  wife  a  pony  for  her  own.12  Children,  especially  boys,  are 
not  held  to  work ;  the  latter  are  to  become  hunters.  They  are 
allowed  their  own  way,  their  elders  saying:  "We  did  not  work 
ourselves  in  the  days  of  our  youth."  They  follow  their  own  in 
clinations,  do  what  they  like  and  no  one  prevents  them,  except 
it  be  that  they  do  harm  to  others ;  but  even  in  that  case  they  are 
not  punished,  being  only  reproved  with  gentle  words.  Parents 
had  rather  make  good  the  damage  than  punish  the  children , 
for  the  reason  that  they  think  the  children  might  remember  it 
against  them  and  avenge  themselves  when  they  have  attained  to 
maturity.  Girls  are  rather  more  accustomed  to  work  by  their 
mothers,  for  as  the  women  must  pound  all  the  corn  in  a  stamp 
ing  trough  or  mortar,  they  train  their  daughters  in  this  and  also 
in  such  other  work  as  will  be  expected  of  them,  as  cooking, 
bread-making,  planting,  making  of  carrying-girdles  and  bags, 
the  former  used  to  carry  provisions  and  utensils  on  their  backs 
while  journeying  and  the  latter  to  hold  the  provisions.  Both 
are  made  of  wild  hemp13  which  they  gather  in  the  fall  and  use 
for  various  purposes,  for  mending  of  shoes  and  making  the 
thread  with  which  they  sew  amongst  the  rest.  Wild  hemp  is 
much  tougher  than  that  cultivated  by  the  whites.  In  the  matter 
of  cleanliness,  too  much  must  not  be  expected  among  the  Indians. 
The  brass  kettles  in  which  they  cook,  the  dishes  which  they  make 
of  the  growths  and  knots  of  trees,  and  also  their  spoons,  which 
are  usually  very  large,  are  rarely  washed,  so  that  it  is  not  very 
tempting  for  a  European,  unaccustomed  to  this,  to  eat  with 
them.  Yet  in  this  respect,  also,  one  finds  differences,  for  some 


North  American  Indians.  17 

are  as  cleanly  as  one  could  expect  it.  The  Monsys14  and  the 
Mingoes,  however,  far  excel  the  Delawares  in  uncleanliness,  and, 
since  the  dog's  are  constantly  in  the  houses  or  lying  about  the 
fires,  there  are  generally  many  fleas  and  other  insects. 

Their  britchen,15  made  of  boards  and  arranged  about  the 
fire,  serve  as  table,  bench  and  bedstead.  The  underbedding  upon 
which  they  lie,  is  either  an  untanned  deer  or  bear  skin  or  a  mat 
of  rushes,  which  grow  in  ponds  or  stagnant  water ;  these  the 
women  are  clever  enough  to  decorate  in  red,  black  or  other 
colors,  finding  the  materials  for  the  latter  in  the  forest.  These 
mats  they  also  fasten  about  the  walls  of  their  lodges,  keeping 
out  the  cold  of  winter  as  well  as  for  ornamentation.  Blankets 
worn  during  the  day  as  part  of  the  clothing  serve  at  night  as 
covering. 

Boys  and  girls  sleep  apart.  As  soon  as  girls  walk  a  little 
frock  is  fastened  about  them  in  order  that  they  may  accustom 
themselves  to  wear  their  clothing  in  a  modest  manner,  the  gar 
ments  of  the  women  being  short,  for  the  reason  that  long  gowns 
would  seriously  inconvenience  them  in  their  movements  through 
the  forests.  In  this  particular  the  boys  are  neglected,  wearing 
little  or  nothing  until  at  the  age  of  five  or  six  years,  when  a 
flap  of  cloth  is  fastened  to  a  leathern  band  or  girdle  that  has 
been  worn  from  early  in  infancy  in  order  that  they  might  become 
accustomed  to  it. 

Houses  of  the  Indians  were  formerly  only  huts  and  for  the 
most  part  remain  such  humble  structures,  particularly  in  regions 
far  removed  from  the  habitation  of  whites.  These  huts  are 
built  either  of  bast  (tree-bark  peeled  off  in  the  summer)  or  the 
walls  are  made  of  boards  covered  with  bast.  They  are  low 
structures.  Fire  is  made  in  the  middle  of  the  hut  under  an  open 
ing  whence  the  smoke  escapes.  Among  the  Mingoes  and  the 
Six  Nations1'1  one  rarely  sees  houses  other  than  such  huts  built 
entirely  of  bast,  which,  however,  are  frequently  very  long,  hav 
ing  at  least  from  two  to  four  fire-places ;  as  many  families  in 
habiting  such  a  house  as  there  are  fire-places,  the  families  being 
related.  Among  the  Delawares  each  family  prefers  to  have  its 
own  house,  hence  they  are  small.  The  Mingoes  make  a  rounded, 
2 


18  David  Zeisbergcr's  History 

arched  roof,  the  Delawares  on  the  contrary,  a  high  pitched, 
peaked  roof.  The  latter,  coming  much  in  contact  with  the  whites, 
as  they  do  not  live  more  than  a  hundred  miles  from  Pittsburg, 
have  learned  to  build  block  houses  or  have  hired  whites  to  build 
them.  Christian  Indians  generally  build  proper  and  comfort 
able  houses  and  the  savages  who  seek  to  follow  their  example 
in  work  and  household  arrangement  learn  much  from  them,. 

The  North  American  Indians,  whom  I  wish  now  to  describe 
as  well  as  I  have  learned  to  know  them,  are  by  nature  (I  speak 
of  savages)  lazy  as  far  as  work  is  concerned.  If  they  are  at 
home  and  not  engaged  in  the  chase  they  lie  all  day  on  their 
britchen  and  sleep ;  when  night  comes  they  go  to  the  dance  or 
wander  about  in  disorderly  fashion.  The  old  men  work  a  little, 
chopping  wood  or  doing  other  things  about  the  house,  but  the 
younger  do  nothing  unless  driven  by  dire  necessity  to  build  a  hut 
or  house  or  the  like.  Whatever  time  is  not  devoted  to  sleep  is 
given  to  amusements,  such  as  ball  playing,  which  they  have 
learned  from  the  whites,  as  also  cards.  A  game  with  dice  they 
have  themselves  invented.  The  dice  are  made  of  the  pits  of  wild 
plums,  not  cubical  but  oval  shaped  and  smooth,  black  on  one 
side  and  yellow  on  the  other.  These  they  each  in  turn  raise  in 
a  wooden  vessel  and  throw  forcibly  to  the  ground,  occupying 
whole  days  in  this  way  and  accompanying  their  plays  with  much 
noisy  ejaculation.  Dances  take  place  every  night,  all  young 
people,  men  and  women,  attending.  The  dancing  takes  place 
either  in  a  large  house  or  in  the  open  about  the  fire.17  The  men 
lead  in  the  dance,  the  women  closing  the  circle.  Such  is  the 
exultant  shouting  on  these  occasions  that  it  can  be  heard  two 
or  three  miles  away.  The  dance  usually  lasts  until  midnight, 
though  there  are  intervals  of  rest.  The  drum  which  keeps  the 
time  is  a  thin  deer-skin  stretched  across  a  barrel,  or,  in  lieu  of 
this,  a  kettle. 

They  are  proud  and  haughty,  even  a  miserable  Indian,  cap 
able  in  no  respect,  imagines  himself  to  be  a  great  lord.18  They 
hold  themselves  in  high  regard  as  if  they  were  capable  of  great 
and  wonderful  things,  in  which  respect  they  are  much  encour 
aged  by  dreams,  held  among  them  to  be  very  significant  and, 


North  American  Indians.  19 

indeed,  it  would  appear  that  through  dreams  Satan  holds  the 
heathen  bound  and  fettered  and  in  close  connection  with  him 
self,  subjecting  them  in  this  fashion  to  delusion.  All  this  the 
missionaries  discover  in  those  who  come  to  the  church  and  who 
need  be  thoroughly  humbled  before  they  give  up  the  vain  imagin 
ations  concerning  themselves. 

They  are  masters  in  the  art  of  deceit  and  at  the  same  time 
are  very  credulous ;  they  are  given  over  to  cheating  and  stealing, 
and  are  not  put  to  shame  when  caught.  Stealing  is  very  com 
mon  among  them.  They  will  steal  and  sell  each  other's  horses ; 
and,  though  a  thief  be  caught,  little  is  done  to  him  beyond  taking 
his  rifle.  This  he  hardly  refuses  to  give  up,  since  another  can 
be  secured  for  some  other  horse  that  he  may  steal. 

They  are  capable  of  hiding  their  anger  readily,  but  await 
an  opportunity  to  avenge  themselves  on  the  person  by  whom 
they  think  themselves  to  have  been  injured,  and  this  generally 
occurs  secretly  and  quietly.  If,  however,  one  of  them  expresses 
himself  in  harsh  threats  towards  anyone  who  has  injured  him, 
go-betweens  are  chosen  who  seek  to  establish  peace  between  the 
two,  the  same  being  usually  effected  by  means  of  a  belt  of  sev 
eral  fathoms19  of  wampum,  furnished  by  the  one  who  has  been 
threatened. 

They  are  courageous  where  no  danger  is  to  be  found,  but 
in  the  face  of  danger  or  resistance  they  are  fearful  and  the 
worst  cowards.20  Hence,  in  wartime  they  prefer  to  attack  de 
fenceless  whites  on  plantations,  women  and  children,  when  they 
least  expect  it.  Against  them  they  show  their  heroic  courage. 
They  can  be  very  friendly  to  a  white  man,  give  him  to  eat  and 
act  as  if  they  had  nothing  evil  in  mind  against  him  and  then 
drive  the  hatchet  into  his  head,  of  which  I  will  give  you  a  few 
examples.  In  the  last  Indian  war,  about  the  year  i^6^,21  when 
it  seemed  as  if  the  war  were  at  an  end  and  peace  ruled  once 
more  in  the  Indian  country  but  broke  out  anew  so  suddenly  that 
the  whites  knew  nothing  of  it,  a  large  party  of  traders,  with  much 
merchandise,  went  to  the  Wiandots.  These  met  them  and,  seeing 
that  the  traders  were  too  strong  for  them,  sought  by  deception 
to  get  them  into  their  power,  telling  them,  therefore,  that  a 
strong  detachment  of  Tawas22  was  on  the  move  to  destroy  them. 


20  David  Zeisberqer's  History 

They,  the  Wiandots,  would  give  them  good  counsel  to  the  end 
that  they  might  save  their  lives.  They  should  submit  as 
prisoners,  suffer  themselves  to  be  bound,  in  order  that  when  the 
Tawas  should  arrive  they  might  see  them  already  prisoners,  in 
which  case  they  would  do  them  no  injury.  They  themselves 
would  harm  them  in  no  manner  and  surely  accompany  them  to 
their  towns  with  their  merchandise.  Their  advice  must  be  acted 
upon  at  once  for  the  enemies  were  not  far  distant.  The  traders 
believed  them,  allowed  themselves  to  be  bound,  even  aiding  their 
captors  by  binding  each  other.  No  sooner  were  they  fettered 
than  the  Wiandots  forthwith  murdered  them  and  secured  rich 
booty. 

Some  years  ago,  before  the  present  war23  began,  the  Shaw- 
anose  causing  disturbance,  some  whites  who  had  been  living 
among  them  were  obliged  to  save  their  lives  by  flight.  One  of 
the  latter,  hungry  and  weak,  had  separated  himself  from  his 
companions  and,  in  view  of  a  Delaware  town,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  several  Mingoes,  who  perceived  at  once  that  he  was  very 
weary  and  weak.  They  bade  him  sit  down,  gave  him  some 
thing  to  eat  and  after  they  had  fed  and  refreshed  him,  killed  him, 
all  of  which  was  witnessed  by  a  Delaware  woman,  who  after 
ward  related  the  circumstance. 

In  studying  the  Indians,  their  mode  of  life  and  deportment 
toward  each  other,  particularly  the  relations  between  the  sexes, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  one  does  not  learn  to  know  them  well  until 
they  become  concerned  about  the  well-being  of  their  souls  and 
confess  the  evils  that  weigh  on  their  consciences.  One  may  be 
among  them  for  several  years  and,  not  knowing  them  intimately, 
as  stated,  regard  them  as  a  virtuous  people.  Far  from  it.  Im 
purity  and  immorality,  even  gross  sensuality  and  unnatural 
vice  flourish  among  them,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the 
Indians  themselves,  more  than  was  the  case  formerly.24  As  they 
marry  early  in  life,  the  men  in  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  year, 
the  women  in  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  or  even  earlier,  one 
would  imagine  that  the  Indians  should  increase  rapidly  and  have 
many  children.  Yet  an  Indian  may  become  old  and  have  but 
few  or  no  children,  for  family  ties  are  only  too  frequently  and 
easily  broken  on  slight  provocation,  even  when  there  are  chil- 


North  American  Indians.  21 

dren.  Only  as  the  parties  advance  in  age  and  cannot  so  readily 
form  other  connections,  are  matrimonial  relations  apt  to  be  per 
manent.  Owing  to  instability  of  family  relationship,  children 
are  often  neglected.  This  does  not  argue  that  the  Indians  do  not 
love  their  children.  As  every  creature  loves  its  young,  so  the 
Indians  do  love  their  children,  are  indeed,  very  fond  of  them, 
especially  as  they  mature  and  return  the  affection.  But  sin  and 
lust  bring  about  unnatural  conditions.  It  seems  as  if  a  curse 
rested  upon  them  and  that  they  were  destined  to  become  extinct. 
There  is  another  clan  of  Indians  who  live  with  their  wives  be 
cause  they  love  their  children,  and  at  the  same  time  have  concu 
bines,  who  do  not  live  in  the  house,  because  the  rightful  wife 
will  not  suffer  this.  The  latter  will  generally  be  content  to  remain 
with  her  husband.  I  have  known  cases  where  an  Indian  would 
have  two  wives  in  his  house,  but  this  is  rare. 

Yet  there  are  Indians,  even  among  the  savages,24^  who  main 
tain  peaceable  and  orderly  family  life.  Among  them  larger  fam 
ilies  are  the  rule,  there  being  often  from  eight  to  twelve  chil 
dren.  The  difference  between  these  Indians  and  their  fellows 
may  be  easily  appreciated. 

The  Indians  have  both  capacity  and  skill  for  work,  if  they 
only  had  the  inclination.  Such  is  their  mental  constitution  that 
they  readily  grasp  and  understand.  Some  who  have  been  much 
with  whites  have  begun  to  work  in  iron,  have  fashioned  hatchets, 
axes,  etc.,  right  well,  have  given  up  the  chase  because  they  have 
found  regular  work  much  more  profitable  and  less  hard  on 
clothing  and  shoes  than  wandering  through  the  forest  in  pur 
suit  of  game.  It  is,  however,  true  that  in  the  forest  they  are  a 
wonderful  people.  They  can  go  on  a  journey  of  many  days  in 
the  forest  where  there  is  neither  path  nor  trail,  without  getting 
lost.  It  is  as  if  Nature  had  fixed  the  compass  in  their  heads.  No 
European  is  equal  to  them  in  this  respect.  If  they  would  go 
anywhere  and  have  determined  on  the  journey,  nothing  prevents 
the  carrying  out  of  their  purpose.  Though  creeks  and  rivers 
are  often  swollen  and  progress  is  difficult,  they  know  what  to  do 
when  white  men  would  be  at  their  wit's  end.  In  company  of 
Indians  one  mav  be  sure  not  to  be  lost  nor  to  suffer  starvation. 


22  David  Zeisberycr's  History 

On  their  journeys  they  are  never  in  haste,  for  they  are 
everywhere  at  home  and  whithersoever  they  wander  they  find 
sustenance  in  the  forest.  Therefore,  if  a  white  man  travels  with 
them  it  is  wisest  that  he  be  content  not  to  hasten  but  accommo 
date  himself  to  their  movements.  In  the  morning  they  do  not 
break  camp  early,  not  until  they  have  eaten  heartily,  by  which 
time  the  sun  has  usually  been  above  the  horizon  two  or  three 
hours.  Thereafter,  they  proceed  very  steadily  until  near  sun 
down,  when  they  go  into  camp.  In  rainy  weather  they  peel 
bast  from  the  trees  and  speedily  build  a  hut,  that  is,  a  roof  sup 
ported  by  four  posts,  under  which  they  remain  comfortably  dry. 
This  they  do  not  only  in  summer  but  also  in  winter,  at  which 
time  they  know  what  trees  to  peel.  In  more  northerly  regions, 
as  near  Goschgosching25  and  the  Mingoe  country,  where  the  snow 
is  apt  to  be  deep  in  winter,  they  go  on  snowshoes  over  the  deep 
est  snow.  Here  along  the  Muskingum,  however,  where  the  snow 
is  never  deep,  this  is  not  necessary ;  hence,  in  this  means  of  loco 
motion  the  Delawares  are  not  as  skilled  as  the  Mingoes.  These 
snowshoes  are  like  a  heavy  barrel-hoop,  curved  and  very  nar 
row  in  front,  pointed  behind  and  broad  in  the  middle.  This 
hoop  is  mostly  interlaced  with  deerskin,  something-  like  a  coarse 
sieve,  so  that  the  snow  may  not  gather  on  it,  but  fall  through. 
A  little  to  the  front  of  the  middle  there  is  a  wooden  cross- 
piece  and  a  small  opening  upon  which  the  foot  is  placed 
and  bound  with  leathern  thongs  in  such  a  fashion  that  the  snow- 
shoes  seem  to  be  dragged  along  behind  on  the  snow.  As  to 
provisions  for  the  journey,  they  take  corn  crushed  to  a  meal  or 
roasted  in  hot  ashes,  then  crushed,  with  which  they  mix  a  little 
sugar ;  of  this,  in  the  heat  of  summer,  a  refreshing  and  at  the 
same  time,  nourishing  drink  may  be  prepared,  if  a  little  is  stirred 
in  water.  This  mixture  may  also  be  boiled  in  water  or  eaten 
dry.  These  two  kinds  of  meal  are  the  usual  provisions.  Corn- 
bread  does  not  keep  long,  in  the  summertime,  particularly,  be 
coming  unwholesome  in  three  or  four  days.  Meat  they  can  pro 
cure  anywhere  in  the  forest,  as  game  is  always  to  be  found.  In 
the  securing  of  it  they  lose  little  time,  for  when  they  contem 
plate  pitching  a  camp,  the  Indians  plunge  into  the  woods  and 
shoot  a  deer,  a  turkey-cock  or  something  else. 


North  American  Indians.  23 

If  they  wish  to  proceed  by  water,  or  having  been  hunting, 
are  anxious  to  return  home  heavily  laden  with  meat  and  skins, 
they  speedily  make  a  canow  [canoe]  of  bast,  load  it  with  their 
things  and  go  whither  they  will.  These  canows  are  fashioned 
of  one  piece  of  bast,  the  outer  side  of  which  is  turned  inward, 
both  ends  sharply  pointed  and  securely  sewn  with  bast,  the  inside 
being  stretched  out  by  a  ribbing  of  bent  wooden  rods,  which 
keeps  the  canow  in  its  proper  form.  These  canows  are  so  light 
upon  the  water  that  they  easily  glide  away  from  under  the  feet 
of  one  unaccustomed  to  them  when  attempting  to  stand.  Cap 
size  they  cannot,  because  they  are  very  broad  and  carry  heavy 
burdens.  To  make  one  they  choose  a  tree  according  to  the  size 
of  canow  desired  and  peel  the  bark  off  carefully  so  that  there 
may  be  no  rent.  If  a  canow  gets  out  of  repair  or  is  punctured 
by  wood  that  floats  in  the  water,  or  stones,  the  latter  frequently 
the  case  because  they  are  thin,  the  Indians  know  how  to  repair 
it  by  securing  a  patch  of  bast  over  any  opening.  Besides,  there 
is  a  kind  of  elm-wood  bast  which  they  crush  or  pound  fine  and 
which  is  of  a  sticky  consistency,  serving  them  in  place  of  tar, 
to  keep  their  canows  water-tight  so  that  they  do  not  leak.  Even 
so,  a  canow  barely  lasts  more  than  a  year.26  At  one  time  they 
were  more  used  than  is  the  case  now,  when  they  use  them  only 
occasionally,  as  necessity  may  dictate ;  for  since  they  have 
hatchet,  axe  and  other  tools  they  make  canows  hewn  out  of 
trees,  using  fire  also  to  burn  out  the  trunks. 

Indians  are  not  less,  rather  more,  subject  to  disease  than 
Europeans,  their  rough  manner  of  life  and  the  hardships  of 
travel  and  the  chase  being  contributing  causes.  On  journeys  they 
mind  neither  water  nor  snow  nor  ice,  even  though  creeks  and 
rivers  be  ever  so  full  of  running  ice  they  go  through  and  nothing 
holds  them  up.  On  the  chase  they  not  only  steal  through  the 
woods  to  get,  unnoticed,  near  the  game,  but  also  pursue  it  should 
it  run  before  them,  until  they  get  within  range,  thus  often  tiring 
the  deer  they  may  have  chased  from  morn  till  eve  and  then  at 
the  end  of  the  day  shooting  one  after  another,  sometimes  eight 
or  ten  miles  away  from  their  hunting  lodge,  no  food  having  been 
tasted  the  entire  day.  So  long  as  they  are  young  and  strong, 


24  David  Zeisberger's  History 

they  suffer  no  ill  effects,  but  with  advancing  years,  the  inevitable 
results  are  felt.  Rheumatism  is  common  among  them.-7  often 
leading  to  lameness,  deafness  or  blindness.  The  women  who 
carry  everything  by  means  of  a  earning  girth  fixed  to  the  fore 
head,  whence  the  whole  burden  —  and  a  hundred  weight  is  not 
considered  heavy  —  is  suspended  down  the  back,  suffer  in  back 
and  neck  as  they  grow  older.  The  men  carry  everything  hung  to 
a  carrying  girth  fixed  across  the  chest.  A  deer  weighing  from 
a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  thirty  pounds  they  will  earn  the 
entire  way  home  before  allowing  themselves  to  rest.28 

These  carrying  girths  are  made  by  the  women  of  wild  hemp 
which  is  first  spun.  That  part  of  these  girths  which  passes 
across  the  breast  and  over  the  shoulders  is  three  fingers  [inches] 
broad  and  decorated  with  various  figures:  from  it  depend  long, 
plaited,  durable  bands,  to  which  the  burden  is  bound. 

They  are  subject  to  festering  sores.  Cured  in  one  place. 
they  break  out  in  another.29  Chills  and  fever,  dysentery,  hemorr 
hage,  and  bloody  flux  in  women  are  very  common  among  them. 
Venereal  diseases  have  during  the  last  years  spread  more  and 
more,  due,  doubtless,  to  their  disorderly  life. 

Care  and  attention  for  the  sick  amount  to  but  little,  the 
Indians  being  poor  nurses.  So  long  as  they  can  go  out  they 
lie  on  the  hard  bed  of  boards;  no  longer  able  to  do  this  they 
are  laid  on  the  ground  near  the  fire,  possibly  upon  grass  or  hay. 
a  small  hole  in  the  ground  under  the  patient  serving  as  a  bed 
pan.  In  time  of  sickness  their  diet  consists  of  thin  soup  of 
pounded  corn,  without  either  butter,  fat  or  salt.  Xot  until  a 
patient  is  convalescent  is  he  allowed  any  meat. 

There  are  Indians  who  have  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
virtue  of  roots  and  herbs.30  learned  from  the  fathers,  and  who 
bring  about  relief.  They  are  well  paid  for  their  services.  Who 
ever  is  in  possession  of  knowledge  of  this  nature  keeps  it  to 
himself,  communicating  it  to  no  one.  Only  in  old  age  or  when 
death  is  near  is  the  knowledge  imparted  to  a  child  or  friend, 
though  even  this  does  not  always  happen.  If  they  give  a  dose. 
which,  as,  indeed,  all  roots  and  herbs  used  for  medicinal  pur 
poses,  they  call  Beson,  i.  e..  medicine,  and  which  consists  com 
monly  of  quite  a  kettle  full  —  for  with  them  quantity  signifies 


North  American  Indians.  25 

much  and  the  decoction  usually  being  weak  is  rarely  an  over 
dose — none  can  see  nor  know  of  what  roots  and  herbs  it  has  been 
prepared,  for  they  are  pounded  very  fine.  If  one  should  know 
enough  to  help  himself,  being  able  to  prepare  Beson,  and 
became  ill,  he  will  rarely  treat  himself,  having  the  superstitious 
belief  that  what  is  prepared  by  himself  will  be  of  no  benefit. 
Using  what  has  been  prepared  by  another,  he  believes,  will  bring 
relief. 

Wounds  and  external  injuries  the  Indians  treat  very  suc 
cessfully,  knowing  what  applications  to  make.  In  the  curing  of 
those  suffering  from  snake-bite,  they  are  particularly  capable. 
For  the  bite  of  every  variety  of  snake  they  have  a  special  Beson** 
For  the  treatment  of  internal  affections,  however,  they  lack  both 
knowledge  and  skill. 

The  doctors  among  the  Indians  are  nothing1  other  than  char 
latans.32  Fancied  skill  and  imagined  ability  to  heal  the  sick  are 
traced  to  dreams  which  these  individuals  may  have  had  in  their 
youth.  To  the  dreams  they  appeal,  for  in  them  they  have  much 
faith.  Thus  one  may  in  a  dream  see  a  fierce  animal.  Upon 
this  he  will  ponder  much,  believing  that  it  was  not  by  chance 
but  rather  that  it  signifies  a  gift  of  special  power,  marking  him 
out  a  favored  man :  or  an  Indian  will  seem  to  converse  with 
him  in  a  vision,  saying:  "I  am  lord  over  all  and  can  do  what 
soever  I  will ;  if  you  will  offer  sacrifice  to  me  I  will  give  you 
power  to  do  great  things  and  none  shall  be  able  to  do  you  any 
injury."  Older  Indians,  no  longer  fit  for  the  chase,  are  par 
ticularly  anxious  to  become  medicine  men,  being  able  as  such 
not  only  to  maintain  themselves  but  even  to  acquire  wealth. 
Should  one  wish  to  be  treated,  payment  must  be  ready,  in  value 
from  £20  to  £30,  as  soon  as  the  doctor  enters  the  home.  If  the 
payment  is  insufficient  it  may  be  expected  that  there  will  be  but 
little  circumstance  and  ceremony,  in  which  case  treatment  will 
hardly  avail.  The  doctor  has  the  patient  laid  before  him  on  the 
ground  in  the  house  or  in  the  open,  breathes  upon  him ;  or,  tak 
ing  a  potion  prepared  from  herbs  and  roots,  blows  it  into 
the  face  and  over  the  body  of  the  sick  —  for  they  fancy  them 
selves  capable  of  curing  the  sick  by  breathing  upon  them  and 
persuade  the  Indians  that  they  have  this  power;  or  he  makes 


26  David  Zeisberqer's  History 

horrible  grimaces,  tries  to  appear  hideous  and  terrible  and  make 
such  a  noise  with  his  howling  that  he  can  be  heard  in  the  whole 
town.  Treatment  of  this  kind  takes  many  forms.  Some 
times  the  doctor  crawls  into  a  sweating-oven,  expressly  built 
for  the  purpose,  taking  a  sweat-bath  while  the  patient  lies  with 
out  at  the  opening.  Temperature  within  is  kept  up  by  contin 
ually  adding  hot  stones.  Continuing  his  awful  howling,  the  doc 
tor  occasionally  looks  out  at  the  patient,  with  horrid  grimaces ; 
he  may  also  feel  his  pulse.  All  this  done,  he  will  declare  either 
that  the  patient  will  soon  be  better  or  that  he  has  been  bewitched 
or  that  he  must  bring  sacrifice  to  appease  spirits  who  have  been 
offended  or  make  some  other  requirement.  What  the  doctor 
says,  must  be  done.  If  the  sick  recover,  it  is  believed  to  be  due 
to  the  treatment.  In  case  there  is  no  improvement  another  doc 
tor  is  summoned.  Not  infrequently  this  is  kept  up  until  all  the 
possessions  of  a  family  have  been  devoted  to  useless  doctoring. 
The  poor  are  treated  by  these  doctors  only  when  their  friends 
contribute  to  make  certain  the  payment  for  services.  In  all  man 
ner  of  cases,  whether  it  be  external  injury  or  paralysis  or  internal 
disease,  child-births3  or  child  complaint,  these  doctors  are  sum 
moned.  They  rarely  give  any  medicine  but  always  go  through 
their  deceptive  performances.  There  are  Indians  who  think 
little  of  such  treatment  and  do  not  willingly  summon  a  doctor, 
but  they  have  the  superstitious  fear  that  a  doctor  might  bring 
about  their  death  if  he  were  not  consulted.  An  Indian,  now  a 
Christian,  told  me  that  once,  while  still  a  heathen,  he  had  come  to 
an  Indian  who  was  ill  and  who  required  of  him  that  he  should  give 
him  a  doctor's  treatment,  promising  a  horse  in  payment.  This 
Indian  had  never  done  such  a  thing,  for  he  was  no  doctor,  yet 
as  the  invalid  insisted,  he  consented  to  do  it  and  got  the  horse. 
This  seems  to  indicate  that  any  one  may  become  a  doctor  who 
can  conduct  himself  in  a  sufficiently  mad  fashion. 

It  is  a  custom  of  the  Indians,  even  when  they  are  tired  or 
Tiave  caught  cold,  to  go  into  a  sweating  oven  several  times  a 
week.  For  this  purpose  every  town  has  on  its  outskirts  a  sweat 
ing  oven.  It  is  built  of  timber  and  boards,  covered  completely 
with  earth.  They  crawl  in  through  a  small  opening,  the  latter 
being  closed  as  soon  as  they  have  gone  in.  A  fire  is  usually 


North  American  Indians.  27 

built  in  front  of  the  opening  before  they  go  in  and  hot  stones 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  inclosed  area.  Not  long  after  they 
have  entered,  they  are  covered  with  perspiration,  then  they 
crawl  out  and  cool  off,  returning  to  repeat  the  same  thing  three 
or  four  times.  Women  have- their  own  sweating  ovens  though 
they  do  not  use  them  as  commonly  as  do  the  men.34 

Blood-letting  and  cupping  are  also  in  vogue  among  them. 
For  blood-letting  they  use  flint  or  glass.  Of  either  they  break 
off  little  fragments  until  a  piece  is  secured  that  suits  the  pur 
pose.  This  is  fixed  to  a  short  stick,  placed  upon  the  artery  and 
struck.  In  case  of  cupping,  they  open  the  skin  with  a  knife,  put 
a  little  calabash  over  the  opening,  burning  birch-bast  instead  of 
a  lamp. 

The  Delaware  Nation,  consisting  of  three  tribes,  the 
Unarms,35  Wunalachticos36  and  Monsys,37  formerly  lived  in  the 
region  about  Philadelphia,  also  in  Jersey  about  Trenton,  Bruns 
wick  and  Amboy.  The  Unarms  are  the  chief  people  of  the 
nation ;  their  language,  differing  but  little  from  that  of  the 
Wunalachtico,  is  the  most  melodious.  The  Monsy  tongue  is 
quite  different,  even  though  the  three  grew  out  of  one  parent 
language.  The  last  named  tribe  lived  in  Minnissing38  along  the 
Delaware,  behind  the  Blue  Mountains. 

Among  Indians  belonging  to  the  Moravian  Congregation 
on  the  Muskingum  River  there  are  some  old  people,  who  were 
in  Philadelphia  when  the  first  houses  were  built  there.  They 
are  able  to  relate  how  peaceably  and  agreeably  the  whites  and 
Indians  dwelt  together,  as  if  they  had  been  one  people,  being 
ever  ready  each  to  serve  the  other.  Even  among  the  savages 
there  are  old  people,  who  tell  the  following,  as  I  have  heard  it 
from  various  individuals. 

Before  the  whites  had  come  into  the  land,  there  had  been 
Indians  who  foretold  that  someone  would  come  to  them  across 
the  great  sea.  This  they  had  repeated  on  various  occasions  in 
the  hearing  of  other  Indians,  at  the  last  even  indicating  the  day 
when  this  should  come  to  pass,  the  event  making  good  their 
words.  How  these  Indians  could  have  foretold  it,  no  one  pro 
fesses  to  know,  the  only  explanation  offered  being  that  there 


28  David  Zeisberyer's  History 

must  have  been  vision  or  revelation.  They  had  repeatedly  looked 
out  over  the  sea,  until  at  last  a  vessel  was  sighted,  when  they 
had  immediately  summoned  the  Indians  and  said:  "See,  here 
comes  some  one  to  us,  concerning  whose  coming  we  have  long 
ago  told  you ;  the  gods  are  coming  to  visit  us."  They  wor 
shipped  them,  regarding  them  as  deities.  When  the  whites 
landed,  they  gave  the  Indians  knives,  hatchets,  muskets  and 
various  other  things  they  knew  not  how  to  use  and,  consequently, 
carefully  put  away.  On  occasion  of  feasts  or  sacrifices  they  sus 
pended  the  knives  and  hatchets  from  their  necks  as  ornaments 
and  worshipped  the  various  articles,  bringing  sacrifices  to  them. 
The  muskets  they  did  not  use  except  on  special  days,  when  to 
satisfy  curiosity  a  few  shots  were  fired  and  then  sacrifices  offered 
them.  When  the  whites,  after  lapse  of  considerable  time  came 
again  and  saw  that  the  things  they  had  given  were  worn  about  the 
neck,  they  gave  the  Indians  instructions  in  the  use  of  the  knife, 
hatchet  and  musket. 

In  those  early  days  the  manner  of  living  of  the  Indians  was 
very  different  from  that  of  the  present  time,  yet,  though  they 
were  wretchedly  equipped  and  could  barely  supply  their  wants, 
they  succeeded  in  supporting  life.39  They  planted  corn,  beans, 
pumpkins,  which  they  had  at  that  time.  Their  hoe  was  a  bone 
from  the  shoulder  blade  of  the  deer,  which  is  broad  at  one  ,end 
and  very  narrow  at  the  other.  With  this  bound  to  a  stick  they 
worked  the  soil.  A  turtle-shell  sharpened  by  means  of  a  stone 
and  similarly  attached  to  a  stick,  served  much  the  same  purpose. 
A  kind  of  tobacco  known  as  Brazilian  tobacco,  they  also  had ; 
to  the  present  day  this  tobacco,  which  has  but  small  leaves,  is 
called  Indian  tobacco. 

Their  knives  were  made  of  flint,  not  in  the  form  of  our 
knives  but  shaped  like  arrow-heads,  i.  e.,  triangular,  quite  thin 
and  with  the  two  larger  sides  sharp.  With  such  knives  they 
stripped  off  the  skin  of  deer  and  other  game. 

Their  hatchets,  also  made  of  stone  and  about  the  length  of 
a  hand,  smoothed  and  sharpened,  were  secured  to  a  wooden 
handle.  These  were  not  used  for  splitting  wood  but  only  to  kill 
tre,es,  as  no  more  is  necessary  than  to  chop  through  the  bark, 
if  this  is  done  at  the  right  time,  or  to  peel  off  bast  for  covering 


North  American  Indians.  29 

their  huts.  Trees  were  killed  wherever  they  wished  to  have 
space  for  planting. 

For  the  chase  they  used  bow  and  arrow,  both  made  of  wood, 
the  point  of  the  arrow  alone  being  of  flint  in  the  shape  of  a 
lengthened  triangle,  sharp  and  pointed,  securely  tied  to  the  shaft. 

Kettles  and  pots  for  cooking  they  made  of  clay  mixed  with 
sea  shells,  pounded  very  fine.  After  the  pot  had  been  shaped 
it  was  burned  hard  in  fire.  All  these  things,  knives,  hatchets, 
arrows  and  large  pieces  of  the  pottery  they  used  at  one  time, 
are  frequently  found  in  places  where  Indians  have  lived.  Pots 
herds  have  become  black  through  and  through  so  that  the  shell 
pieces  may  be  seen. 

They  could  shoot  game  as  well  in  those  days  as  at  the  pres 
ent  time  with  their  rifled  guns.  They  declare  that  game  was 
not  as  shy  then  as  now  by  reason  of  the  report  of  the  guns.  In 
those  days  they  killed  only  as  much  of  game  as  was  needed 
for  sustenance,  skins  being  used  for  clothing  both  men  and 
women ;  hence,  game  was  more  abundant  at  that  time.  The 
women  made  blankets  of  turkey-feathers  which  were  bound 
together  with  twine  made  of  wild  hemp.  Of  such  many  are  to 
be  found  even  at  the  present  day  among  the  Indians,  and  these 
in  winter  are  a  better  protection  against  the  cold  than  the  best 
European  blanket.  The  women  also  made  themselves  petti 
coats  of  wild  hemp. 

Bow  and  arrow  have  fallen  into  disuse  among  those  Indians 
that  trade  with  whites ;  are,  indeed,  only  used  for  small  game, 
such  as  the  pigeon,  fox  and  raccoon,  in  order  to  save  powder. 
There  are,  however,  whole  tribes  to  the  west  and  northwest  that 
use  nothing  but  bow  and  arrow  in  the  chase  and  that  have  no 
European  weapons,  that  are  not  even  anxious  to  obtain  them ; 
for,  say  they,  if  we  discard  bow  and  arrow,  who  will  then  make 
for  us  enough  of  powder  and  shot.  They  prefer,  therefore,  to 
hold  to  their  old  custom  and  usage. 

The  fire  materials  of  those  days  consisted  of  a  dry  piece 
of  wood  or  board  and  a  round  dry  stick.  The  latter  was  placed 
upon  the  board  and  turned  or  twirled  with  great  swiftness,  both 
hands  being  used,  until  there  was  smoke  and  fire.  This,  how 
ever,  was  done  only  in  case  their  fire  had  gone  out,  which  they 


30  David  Zeisberqer's  History 

were  generally  careful  to  keep  burning.  On  journeys  they 
were  accustomed  to  carry  fire  with  them  from  one  lodging-place 
to  another,  for  which  purpose  they  used  a  certain  kind  of 
fungus,40  that  grows  upon  trees.  With  such  a  glowing  piece  of 
fungus  they  could  travel  from  morning  to  evening.  This  cus 
tom  has  to  the  present  day  not  ceased  among  the  Indians,  nor  has 
the  method  of  making  fire  described  above,  some  still  employing  it 
on  special  occasions  and  in  connection  with  their  sacrifices,  in 
order  to  remind  themselves  of  former  customs  and  usages.  Fire 
wood  they  did  not  split  in  former  days  nor  could  they  have  done 
so  with  their  hatchets  of  stone.  They  burned  it  into  pieces  of 
such  length  that  could  be  carried  home.  They  built  a  fire  against 
the  trunks  of  standing  trees  and  kept  it  burning  until  they 
fell,  which  method  still  obtains  among  them,  especially  the  older 
ones,  for  whom  it  is  difficult  to  fell  trees  and  split  wood  and  who, 
perhaps,  do  not  even  own  a  hatchet.  These  may  not  burn  a 
piece  of  split  wood  during  a  whole  winter,  but  provide  fuel  for 
themselves  in  the  manner  described,  which  is  quite  easy  and  con 
venient  for  them. 

Canows  made  of  wood  as  well  as  bast,  they  also  had 
in  earlier  days,  fashioning  the  former  out  of  a  whole  tree 
trunk,  which  they  burned  out  and  only  used  their  hatchets  to 
chop  off  glowing  coals,  lest  they  should  burn  in  deeper  in  one  place 
than  another  or  even  burn  a  hole  through. 

Their  dwellings  were  huts  of  bark,  which  they  lined  with 
rushes  in  order  to  keep  out  the  cold,  roofed  they  were  with 
bark,  even  as  is  the  case  now,  though  sometimes  rushes  or  long, 
dry  reed-grass  served  the  purpose. 

Underground  dwellings  there  were,  also,  of  which  here  and 
there  traces  may  be  found,  particularly  along  the  Muskingum, 
in  which  region  one  may  yet  see  many  places,  where  embank 
ments,  still  to  be  seen,  were  thrown  up  around  a  whole  town.41 
Here  and  there,  furthermore,  near  the  sites  of  such  towns  there 
are  mounds,  not  natural,  but  made  by  the  hand  of  man,  for  in 
those  clays  the  natives  carried  on  great  wars  with  one  another, 
Indians  being  formerly,  according  to  their  own  testimony,  far 
more  numerous  than  at  the  present  time.  At  the  top  of  these 
mounds  there  was  a  hollow  place,  to  which  the  Indians  brought 


North  American  Indians.  31 

their  wives  and  children  when  the  enemies  approached  and  at 
tacked  them,  the  men  ranging  themselves  round  the  mound  foi 
defensive  action.  Their  weapons  were  the  bow  and  arrow  and 
a  wooden  club,  this  last  a  piece  of  wood  of  not  quite  arm's  length 
having  at  the  end  a  round  knob  about  the  size  of  a  small  child's 
head  and  made  of  very  hard  wood.  Shields  they  bore  made  ot 
hardened  buffalo  leather  and  presenting  a  convex  surface  with 
out,  while  being  hollow  within.  The  curved  outer  surface  the} 
held  toward  the  enemy  and  before  their  own  breasts  and  faces 
in  order  that  arrows  discharged  at  them,  striking  the  curved 
surface,  would  glance  off  and  go  to  the  side.  With  the  left  hand 
they  held  both  shield  and  bow  and  with  the  right  they  drew  the 
bow  and  held  the  arrow.  On  the  above  named  hills  they  always 
had  great  blocks  lying  all  about,  in  order  that  should  the  ene 
mies  attempt  to  storm  the  heights  these  might  be  rolled  upon 
and  among  them  so  as  to  keep  them  off.  In  such  attacks  both 
sides  usually  lost  many  men,  which  were  often  buried  in  one 
pit  and  a  great  mound  of  earth  raised  above  them,  such  as  may 
even  now  be  seen  bearing  in  these  days  great  and  mighty  trees.42 

DOKS  they  likewise  possessed  in  former  days,  of  a  kind  still 
to  be  found  in  considerable  numbers  among  them.  These  may 
be  readily  distinguished  from  European  dogs,  which  are  now 
most  commonly  found  among  the  Indians,  especially  the  Dela 
wares.  The  ears  of  Indian  dogs  rise  rigidly  from  the  head  and 
the  animals  have  something  of  a  wolfish  nature,  for  they  show 
their  teeth  immediately  when  roused.  They  will  never  attack  a 
wolf  in  the  forest,  though  set  on  to  do  so,  in  this  respect,  also 
differing  from  European  dogs.  Of  their  origin  their  masters 
can  give  as  little  information  as  of  that  of  the  Indians  themselves, 

The  wampum  strings  of  the  Indians  were  formerly  made  of 
bits  of  wood,  some  white,  some  black,  which  were  used  in  con 
nection  with  embassies  and  speeches.  Belts  of  wampum  were 
also  made.  Some  few  were  made  of  mussel-shells,  which  were 
held  in  the  same  value  among  them  as  gold  among  the  Euro 
peans,  for  much  time  was  consumed  in  making  even  one  such 
string  of  wampum.  When  whites  came  into  the  country  these 
contrived  to  make  wampum  strings  which  they  bartered  to  the 
Indians,  who  used  them  in  place  of  their  wooden  wampum,  a;; 


32  David  Zeisberger's  History 

is  even  now  the  case,  though  they  are  not  accounted  as  valuable 
as  at  one  time.  Formerly  they  sometimes  used  in  the  place  of 
the  belts  the  wing  of  some  large  bird,  which  is  still  done  among 
the  nations  living  in  remoter  regions,  where  wampum  is  rare  or 
not  to  be  had  at  all,  where  there  is  no  trade  with  Europeans  and 
some  have  not  even  seen  wampum.  Occasionally,  though  not 
often,  embassies  from  such  distant  people  come  to  the  Dela- 
wares.43 

A  belt  is  given  in  confirmation  of  a  message  or  speech,  as 
they  know7  nothing  of  writing  ;  an  answer  given  is  similarly  rati 
fied  by  a  belt  of  the  same  Si/e.  An  alliance  or  league  is  hardly 
arranged  by  two  peoples  with  less  than  twenty  belts  of  wampum. 
Often  thirty  or  more  are  required. 

As  1  have  digressed  from  the  main  matter,  viz.,  the  charac 
ter  and  nature  of  the  land,  I  must  yet  in  passing  notice  how  it 
came  about  that  the  Delawares,  who  had  lived  near  the  sea  and 
along  the  Delaware  River,  came  to  Alleghene,44  where  they  were 
strangers  and  had  no  claim  to  the  land.  Some  eighty  years  ago, 
more  or  less,  the  whites  being  already  in  the  country  and  many 
of  the  Delawares  having  moved  far  up  the  Delaware  River,  a 
party  of  these  Indians,  with  the  cousin  of  a  chief  as  captain,  went 
on  a  hunt.  They  were  attacked  by  Cherokees,  at  that  time  dwell 
ing  along  the  Allegheny  and  its  branches,  and  some  of  them 
were  killed,  the  captain,  a  cousin  of  the  chief,  among  the  rest. 
The  survivors  fled  to  their  homes,  related  to  the  chief  what  had 
happened  and  suggested  that  he  give  them  more  men  in  order 
that  they  might  avenge  themselves  on  their  enemies.  The  chief, 
how.ever,  put  them  off  and  did  not  let  them  go,  even  though  he 
sorrowed  over  the  loss  they  had  suffered.  After  the  lapse  of  a 
year  the  chief  sent  out  several  hundred  men  to  avenge  them 
selves  on  the  Cherokees  (the  Delawares  at  that  time  already 
having  European  arms).  When  they  arrived  at  the  enemies' 
first  towns  along  the  Allegheny,  they  found  no  one,  for  all  had 
fled  at  the  news  of  the  Delawares'  approach.  The  latter  pur 
sued,  the  Cherokees  constantly  retreating  until  they  were  over 
taken  at  the  great  island45  at  the  fork  where  Pittsburg  is  now 
situated.  Perceiving  that  the  Delawares  were  strong  in  num- 


North  American  Indians.  33 

hers,  they  had  no  heart  to  fight,  though  they  stood  ready  with 
bow  and  arrow  in  hand ;  instead,  their  chiefs  called  to  the  Dela- 
wares  to  rest  their  arms  and  not  fight.  Afterwards  they  had  an 
interview  with  the  Delawares  and  surrendered  themselves  as 
prisoners.  About  half  of  them,  however,  dissatisfied  with  the 
capitulation,  refused  to  surrender  and  escaped  during  the  night, 
going  down  the  river  to  the  mouth  of  another  river,  now  named 
the  Cherokee  River,40  where  they  landed  and  afterward  settled 
along  this  stream,  in  the  region  in  which  they  still  live.  After 
the  Delawares  had  finished  with  the  Cherokees,  the  Six  Nations 
arrived,  having  heard  of  the  expedition  of  the  Delawares.  When 
they  realized  that  the  Delawares  were  masters  of  the  situation, 
they  professed  satisfaction  and  said  that  they  had  come  to  assist 
them,  but  recognized  that  their  aid  was  n*ot  now  needed.  There 
upon  the  Delawares  gave  them  some  of  their  prisoners  as  a  pres 
ent  for  their  trouble  and  suffered  them  to  go  to  their  homes. 
Then  the  Delawares  remained  a  long  time  at  the  Beaver  Creek, 
to  which  they  gave  its  name,  in  view  of  the  animals  that  there 
abounded.  After  that  the  Delawares  turned  their  faces  home 
ward  but  soon  returned,  and  since  that  time  this  region  has  been 
inhabited  by  Delawares  and  year  by  year  more  have  come.  Later 
the  Wiondats,  in  connection  with  a  solemn  council,  recognized 
the  claim  they  made  to  the  territory,  inasmuch  as  they  had  con 
quered  it.  All  this  land  and  region,  stretching  as  far  as  the 
creeks  and  waters  that  flow  into  the  Alleghene  the  Delawares 
call  Alligewinenk,  which  means,  "a  land  into  which  they  came 
from  distant  parts."  The  river  itself,  however,  is  called  Alligewi 
Sipo.  The  whites  have  made  Alleghene  out  of  this,  the  Six 
Nations  calling  the  river  the  Ohio. 

The  Cherokees  were  very  powerful  but  had  no  friends 
among  the  nations;  on  the  contrary,  the  Six  Nations  and  the 
Wiondats  waged  war  against  them,  though  the  Delawares  made 
no  further  expeditions  against  themv  Once  it  occurred  that  the' 
Cherokees,  pursuing  the  Six  Nations  who  had  done  them  some 
injury,  came  up  to  some  Delaware  towns  and  killed  several  of 
that  people.  This  provoked  a  war  between  the  Delawares  and 
Cherokees  that  lasted  until  1766  or  1767,  when  the  Cherokees 
3 


34  David  Zeisberger's  History 

sought  the  friendship  of  the  Delawares,  who  had  clone  them  much 
harm,  even  to  the  extent  of  going  into  their  towns  and  killing 
a  number  of  people.  Hence,  they  made  peace  and  the  Cherokees 
recognized  the  Delawares  as  their  grandfathers.  Through  inter 
vention  of  the  Delawares  the  Cherokees  secured  peace  also  with 
the  Six  Nations  and  others,  which  was  established  in  i768,46l/2 
when  the  mission  of  the  Brethren  was  begun  at  Goschgosching. 

With  the  Delawares  the  Six  Nations  carried  on  long  wars 
before  the  coming  of  the  white  man,  and  even  after  the  advent 
of  the  pale-face,  but  the  former  were  always  too  powerful  for 
the  Six  Nations.  The  latter  were  convinced  that  if  they  con 
tinued  the  wars,  their  total  extirpation  would  be  inevitable.  The 
Six  Nations  indeed  boast  that  they  had  overcome  the  Delawares 
but  these  will  not  grant  it,  stating  that  as  the  Six  Nations  recog 
nized  the  superior  strength  of  the  Delawares  they  thought  of  a 
means  of  saving  their  honor  and  making  peace  so  that  it  might 
not  seem  that  they  had  been  conquered  by  the  Delawares. 

Soon  after  Pennsylvania  had  been  settled  by  the  whites, 
the  Six  Nations  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Delawares,  opened  nego 
tiations  and  said  :47  It  is  not  profitable  that  all  the  nations  should 
be  at  war  with  each  other,  for  this  would  at  length  ruin  the 
whole  Indian  race.  They  had,  therefore,  contrived  a  remedy  by 
which  this  evil  might  be  prevented  while  there  was  yet  oppor 
tunity  to  do  so.  One  nation  should  be  the  woman.  She  should 
be  placed  in  the  midst,  while  the  other  nations,  who  make  war, 
should  be  the  man  arid  live  around  the  woman.  No  one  should 
touch  or  hurt  the  woman,  and  if  any  one  did  so,  they  would 
immediately  say  to  him,  "Why  do  you  beat  the  woman?"  Then 
all  the  men  should  fall  upon  him  who  has  beaten  her.  The 
woman  should  not  go  to  war  but  endeavor  to  keep  the  peace  with 
all.  Therefore,  if  the  men  that  surround  her  should  beat  each 
other  and  the  war  be  carried  on  with  violence,  the  woman  should 
have  the  right  of  addressing  them,  "Ye  men,  what  are  ye  about ; 
why  do  ye  beat  ,each  other?  We  are  almost  afraid.  Consider 
that  your  wives  and  children  must  perish  unless  you  desist.  Do 
you  mean  to  destroy  yourselves  from  the  face  of  the  earth?" 
The  men  should  then  hear  and  obey  the  woman.  Ever  since  then 
the  Six  Nations  have  called  the  Delawares  their  cousins,  i.  e., 


North  American  Indians.  35 

sister's  children,  and  declared  them  to  be  the  woman,  dressed 
them  in  a  woman's  long  habit,  reaching  down  to  the  feet,  though 
Indian  women  wear  only  short  garments  that  reach  but  little 
below  the  knee,  and  fastened  this  about  their  bodies  with  a  great, 
large  belt  of  wampum.  They  adorned  them  with  ear-rings,  such 
as  their  women  were  accustomed  to  wear.  Further,  they  hung  a 
calabash  rilled  with  oil  and  beson  [medicine]  on  their  arms, 
therewith  to  anoint  themselves  and  other  nations.  They  also 
gave  them  a  corn-pestle  and  a  hoe.  Each  of  these  points  was 
confirmed  by  delivering  a  belt  of  wampum  and  the  whole  cere 
mony  observed  with  the  greatest  solemnity.  One  must  not, 
however,  think  they  actually  dressed  them  in  women's  garments 
and  placed  corn-pestle  and  hoe  in  their  hands.  It  is  to  be  under 
stood  in  the  same  way  as  when  the  chiefs  among  the  Indians 
lay  out  a  trail  several  hundred  miles  through  the  woods,  they 
cut  away  thorn  and  thicket,  clear  trees,  rocks  and  stones  out  of 
the  way,  cut  through  the  hills,  level  up  the  track  and  strew  it 
with  white  sand,  so  that  they  may  easily  go  from  one  nation 
to  another ;  but  when  one  goes  the  way  that  has  thus  been  cleared 
it  is  found  to  be  full  of  wood  and  rocks  and  stones  and  all  over 
grown  with  thorns  and  thicket.  The  woman's  garment  signi 
fied  that  they  should  not  engage  in  war,  for  the  Delawares  were 
great  and  brave  warriors,  feared  by  the  other  nations ;  the  corn- 
pestle  and  hoe  that  they  should  engage  in  agriculture.  The 
calabash48  with  oil  was  to  be  used  to  cleanse  the  ears  of  the 
other  nations,  that  they  might  attend  to  good  and  not  to  evil 
counsel.  With  the  medicine  or  beson  they  were  to  heal  those 
who  were  walking  in  foolish  ways  that  they  might  com,e  to  their 
senses  and  incline  their  hearts  to  peace. 

The  Delaware  nation  is  thus  looked  to  for  the  preserva 
tion  of  peace  and  entrusted  with  the  charge  of  the  great  belt  of 
peace  and  the  chain  of  friendship  which  they  must  take  care  to 
preserve  inviolate  and  which  they  bear  on  their  shoulders  at 
its  middle,  the  other  nations  and  the  Europeans  holding  the  ends. 

Thus  it  was  brought  about  that  the  Delawares  should  be 
the  cousins  of  the  Six  Nations  and  were  made  by  them  to  be  the 
women.  Such  a  state  of  things  was  preserved  until  1755,  when 
a  war  broke  out  between  the  Indians  and  the  white  people  into 


36  David  Zeisberger's  History 

which  the  Delawares  were  enticed  by  the  Six  Nations.  The 
woman's  dress  of  the  Delaware  nation  was  shortened  so  as 
to  reach  only  to  the  knees  and  a  hatchet  was  given  into  their 
hands  for  defense.  More  than  this,  on  the  occasion  of  a  council 
held  during  the  same  war,  near  Pittsburg,  the  Six  Nations  pro 
posed  to  take  the  woman's  dress  away  altogether  and  clothe 
them  with  the  breech-clout,  saying  they  could  well  see  that  the 
dress  was  a  hindrance,  inasmuch  as  the  Delawares  did  not  enter 
heartily  into  the  war,  being  well  aware  that  the  Six  Nations 
only  sought  their  ruin.  This,  therefore,  was  not  approved  of  by 
the  Delawares,  one  of  their  chiefs  rising  to  say  to  the  Six  Na 
tions,  "Why  do  you  wish  to  rob  the  woman  of  her  dress?  I 
tell  you  that  if  you  do.  you  will  find  creatures  in  it  that  are 
ready  to  bite  you.'' 

The  Six  Nations  who  had  betrayed  the  Delawares  into  a 
war  with  the  white  people,  at  the  last  fell  upon  them  them 
selves  at  the  instigation  of  Sir  William  Johnson,  taking  many 
captives,  especially  of  the  Monsy  [Monsey]  tribe,  whom  they 
delivered  over  to  Johnson,  destroying  and  ravaging  their  towns 
on  the  Susquehanna  and  killing  their  cattle.481/2  The  Delawares  will 
not  easily  forget  this  piece  of  treachery  and  there  is  and  remains 
a  national  hostility  between  these  nations.  In  this  present  war 
the  Delawares  have  done  much  to  avenge  themselves. 

With  the  Mohicanders  and  Woapanose49  the  Six  Nations 
also  carried  on  wars  for  a  long  time ;  through  the  instrumental 
ity  of  white  people  peace  was  eventually  declared  between  them 
at  Albanien.50 

Concerning  the  country  in  which  the  Delawares  formerly 
lived,  viz.,  in  Pennsylvania  and  Jersey,  it  is  unnecessary  to  add 
anything,  as  these  regions  are  well  known.  Along  the  Susque 
hanna,  where  our  Indians  lived,  that  is,  at  Friedenshutten,51  the 
country  is  beautiful  and  the  soil  good  along  the  river,  but  away 
from  the  river  in  the  heart  of  the  country  it  is  very  mountainous 
and  of  no  use  to  the  Indians  except  for  the  chase.  Where  the 
Indians  would  prepare  land  and  plant,  the  soil  must  be  of  the 
best.  In  many  cases  where  the  Europeans  would  think  it  pos 
sible  to  have  fine  farms,  the  Indians  would  not  look  at  the  soil. 


North  American  Indians.  37 

In  this  region  they  found  deer,  elk  and  bear  hunting  good,  as 
also  beaver,  fox  and  raccoon  in  plenty.  The  Susquehanna  is 
well  stocked  with  fish.  The  chief  fish  are  the  Rock  fish,63  re 
garded  as  one  of  the  best  fish,  having  large  scales  and  often 
weighing  from  ten  to  forty  pounds;  the  Shad53  or  May-fish 
which  in  the  spring  of  the  year  come  up  the  rivers  in  great 
numbers,  at  which  time  they  are  caught  by  the  hundreds  and 
thousands  with  nets  made  of  wild  vines ;  the  Yellow  Perch,54  as 
its  name  suggests  of  yellowish  color,  having  sharp  prickles  along 
the  back,  a  narrow  head  and  sharp  teeth  like  the  pike,55  which 
also  abounds ;  the  Horn-fish50  with  a  long  bill  like  that  of  a 
duck,  only  narrower,  having  very  sharp  teeth.  This  fish  is  not 
eaten  by  the  Indians.  Further,  there  are  trout57  in  the  creeks 
in  great  numbers  in  winter  and  spring,  as  also  in  the  Susque 
hanna.  There  are  large  eels58  and  various  smaller  fish,  such 
as  Catfish,  Sunfish  and  others. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  1765  two  seals59  were  shot  by  the 
Indians  at  Wajomick.  As  the  like  had  never  been  seen  there 
before,  these  caused  much  astonishment  among  the  Indians  of 
that  region.  Many  were  summoned  to  witness  the  marvel. 
After  they  had  sufficiently  expressed  their  astonishment,  a  coun 
cil  was  called  to  consider  whether  it  would  be  proper  to  eat 
them  or  not.  An  old  Indian  arose  and  observed  as  God  had 
sent  them  they  could  not  but  be  good  to  eat,  even  though  they 
had  not  seen  such  animals  before.  They,  accordingly,  prepared 
for  a  feast  and  all  who  were  assembled  partook  of  the  seals  and 
found  them  a  palatable  dish.  These  seals  had  unquestionably 
come  from  the  sea  and  had  come  up  the  river  several  hundred 
miles. 

The  region  under  consideration  has  this  peculiarity  above 
the  country  to  the  south  that  it  has  great  swamps.  A  swamp 
is  the  name  given  to  such  a  place  where  the  sun  never  shines 
because  of  the  dense  thicket  and  which  even  in  the  middle  of 
summer  is  always  wet  and  cool.  In  such  places  the  beech, 
white  pine  and  spruce  grow  well.  The  Six  Nations,  to  the 
north,  are  surrounded  with  such  swamps.  Hence,  one  must  go 
a  journey  of  many  days  through  the  wilderness  before  their 


38  David  Zeisberger's  History 

habitations  can  be  reached  and  is  obliged  to  climb  over  many 
fallen  trees.  Near  the  home  of  the  Six  Nations  there  are  also 
many  cedar  swamps  —  not  the  red  cedar  but  the  white60 —  and 
swamps  of  this  sort  are  the  wildest  and  darkest  regions,  home 
of  the  black  bears,  which  the  Mingoes  —  Indians  belonging  to 
the  Six  Nations  —  catch  in  wooden  traps.  Otherwise,  there  is 
in  that  region  little  or  no  game,  save  the  beaver  and  fur-skinned 
animals.  A  few  moose  are  found,  though  those  that  are  shot  have 
generally  come  from  Canada.61  Hence,  the  Mingoes,  besides  cul 
tivating  the  soil,  mainly  for  growing  corn  —  this  being  the  work 
of  the  women  —  subsist  largely  on  fish,  for  fish  may  be  caught 
the  year  round.62  Salmon  are  deemed  the  best  and  most  valuable 
fish  in  these  parts.  They  have  red  spots  like  the  trout.  In 
the  autumn  they  go  up  the  little  creeks  where  they  are  easily 
caught.  I  have  found  carrying  two  of  them  a  good  load.  Sal 
mon  fishing  is  carried  on  by  the  Indians  through  the  whole 
summer. 

Besides  this  they  catch  eels63  in  the  fall,  which  are  a  dif 
ferent  variety  from  those  found  in  this  region,  the  head  being 
small  and  sharply  pointed.  In  the  fall,  when  they  go  out  of  the 
rivers  into  the  lakes,  they  are  caught  in  baskets  by  the  thousand 
in  a  single  night.  Dried,  they  may  be  kept  a  long  time.  They 
are  so  fat  that  when  fried  it  is  as  though  bacon  were  being 
fried.  In  the  matter  of  salt,  Indians  of  that  country  do  not  suf 
fer  want,  for  there  are  in  various  places  salt-springs  which  supply 
them  more  abundantly  than  I  have  seen  elsewhere. 

All  rivers  and  waters  of  that  region  empty  into  either  Lake 
Ontario,  of  which  the  St.  Lawrence  is  the  outlet,  or  into  Lake 
Erie,  which  pours  into  Lake  Ontario  after  the  waters  have 
leaped  over  the  falls  of  Niagara.  Upon  both  bodies  of  water 
the  English  have  large  vessels  bearing  cannon  which  are  deemed 
a  necessity  for  the  defense  of  trade  with  the  Indians. 

As  I  have  not  seen  the  cataract,64  though  I  have  more  than 
once  heard  it  described  by  Indians  who  have  seen  it,  yet  could 
give  no  very  accurate  account  of  it  not  being  able  to  measure 
its  height,  I  will  enter  upon  no  description  of  the  phenomenon, 
particularly,  as  correct  description  may  be  found  in  various 
books.  As  Indians  who  have  been  there  relate,  the  waters 


North  American  Indians.  39 

shoot  out  over  a  precipice  so  perpendicular  that  Indians  find  it 
possible  to  go  hither  and  thither  on  the  rocks  under  the  water. 
Fish  that  plunge  over  the  falls  are  killed.  Wild  geese,  ducks  and 
other  birds  that  come  too  near  the  cataract  in  their  flight  are, 
through  air  currents  started  by  the  stream,  drawn  into  the  waters 
to  their  destruction.  Hence,  the  Indians  may  always  find  good  food 
there.  Some  Mingoes  fishing  above  the  falls  on  one  occasion 
were  dragged  into  the  current.  All  their  exertions  to  reach  the 
shore  were  in  vain.  As  they  drew  helplessly  near  the  cataract 
they  threw  everything  away,  seated  themselves,  drew  their 
blankets  over  their  heads  and  plunged  into  the  abyss.  Others 
on  shore  watched  them,  but  were  unable  to  render  any  aid.  Two 
others  narrowly  escaped  the  same  fate.  Seized  by  the  swift 
current,  they  succeeded  in  working  their  way  toward  the  island,60 
which  is  a  mass  of  rocks  bearing  bushes  and  a  few  trees  on  the 
verge  line  of  the  falls,  a  considerable  distance  from  either  shore ; 
nearing  the  island  they  both  sprang  out  of  the  canoe  into  the 
water,  one  of  them  managing  to  catch  hold  of  a  little  tree  that 
hung  down  into  the  water,  the  other  seizing  the  legs  of  the  first. 
Having  safely  drawn  themselves  up  on  the  rock,  they  spent  four 
clays  and  nights  there,  unable  to  make  those  whom  they  could 
see  on  shore  hear  their  cries  because  of  the  roar  of  the  waters. 
At  last  they  were  seen.  The  French,  at  that  time  in  possession 
of  Canada  and,  therefore,  also  of  Niagara,  did  their  utmost  to 
save  them,  letting  themselves  float  down  in  a  canoe  to  the  island 
for  this  purpose.  Working  back  from  the  island  they  kept  the 
canoe  pointed  toward  it,  in  order  that  should  they  be  unable  to 
make  headway  against  the  stream  it  might  have  been  possible 
to  reach  the  island  again.  The  shore  was  reached  in  safety. 

Their  canoes  are  made  of  birch  bark,  many  small  pieces 
being  sewed  together  with  exceeding  neatness.  Being  very 
light  they  are  often  carried  many  miles  across  the  country.  In 
them  they  cross  the  Lakes,  and  as  they  are  so  light,  less  water 
is  dashed  into  them  by  the  waves  than  would  he  the  case  with 
a  European  boat. 

There  are  various  smaller  lakes  in  this  country.  Oneider66 
Lake  is  thirty-two  miles  long  and  eight  miles  broad.  Cayuger67 
Lake  is  about  the  same  size.  In  the  Sennecker  countrv  I  saw 


40  David  Zeisberger's  History 

several  that  are  larger  than  either  of  the  two  named.68  Inas 
much  as  the  Mingoes  do  not  change  their  place  of  residence  as 
the  Delawares  are  accustomed  to  do,  who  never  remain  many 
years  in  one  place,  one  sees  orchards  of  large,  old  apple  trees 
near  all  their  towns.69t  The  Six  Nations  lived  in  these  parts  long 
before  the  advent  of  the  whites.  About  the  year  1600  the  French 
waged  many  wars  with  them,  at  the  last  making  peace.  They 
live  in  about  a  straight  line  from  east  to  west.  The  easternmost 
are  the  Mohoks,70  few  in  number,  who  live  for  the  most  part 
among  white  people.  Next  to  these  live  the  Oneider  and  Tus- 
carores.  The  Onondager  occupy  the  middle,  where  the  great 
council  is  held,  to  which  representatives  corne  from  all  places. 
Further  to  the  west  is  the  dwelling  place  of  the  Cayugers  and  be 
yond  them  are  the  Senneckers,  the  westernmost.  Wiondats  or 
Hurons,  who  live  partly  in  Sandusky,  at  the  western  end  of  Lake 
Erie,  and  partly  in  Detroit,  are  not  counted  in  with  the  Six 
Nations,  though  they  are  allied  with  them.  Their  language 
bears  greatest  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Mingoes. 

Last  year,  1779,  the  Six  Nations  were  driven  out  of  their 
land  by  the  Americans  and  all  their  towns  and  settlements  were 
destroyed,  a  fate  they  had  never  before  experienced.71  Winter 
in  that  region  is  usually  very  severe  and  the  snow  very  deep,  as 
a  rule.  The  soil  is  rich  and  fertile.  Indians  there  plant  a  dif 
ferent  variety  of  corn  from  that  used  here.  It  ripens  earlier. 
The  kind  planted  here  along  the  Muskingum  would  not  mature 
in  those  parts.72 

The  Six  Nations  have  ever  been  a  war-like  people,  unable 
to  preserve  peace.  There  are  few  nations  with  whom  they  have 
not  at  some  time  had  war.  It  is  not  too  much  for  them  to  travel 
in  parties  five  or  six  hundred  miles  into  an  enemy's  country,  to 
hide  then  in  the  woods  for  many  days,  even  weeks,  that  they 
may  catch  hostile  braves,  though  they  must,  in  so  doing,  suffer 
hunger,  not  being  able  to  shoot  any  game  lest  they  be  betrayed. 
When  a  deed  planned  has  been  accomplished  they  hurry  away. 
If  they  can  bring  back  a  captive  or  a  scalp  they  regard  them 
selves  as  amply  rewarded  for  all  weariness  and  need  they  have 
suffered  and  danger  to  which  they  have  been  exposed.  Had 
they  not,  with  the  captives  taken,  replaced  those  of  their  own 


North  American  Indians.  41 

numbers  who  had  perished  in  the  endless  wars,  they  had,  long  ere 
this,  died  out.  As  it  is  they  have  degenerated  and  are  a  very 
different  people  from  what  they  once  were.  As  all  the  Indian 
nations  treat  their  captives  in  much  the  same  manner,  I  will  refer 
to  this  matter  elsewhere. 

Concerning  the  region  in  question,  1  merely  wish  to  add 
that  it  is  w.ell  watered  by  rivers  and  lakes  so  that  it  is  possible 
to  get  almost  anywhere  by  water.  In  the  matter  of  trade,  this 
is  of  great  importance,  though  trade  among  the  Six  Nations 
amounts  to  little,  as  they  do  not  secure  much  by  the  chase.  The 
nations  dwelling  beyond  them  engage  much  more  in  trade.  Each 
of  the  Six  Nations  has  its  language,  the  Cayuger  and  Sennecker 
and  particularly  the  Tuscarores,  who  came  from  Maryland73 
when  they  lived  by  the  sea,  speaking  tongues  very  different 
from  the  rest.  In  the  main,  however,  all  these  dialects  form  one 
speech  and  the  Indians  of  the  Six  Nations  are  all  able  to  under 
stand  one  another.  The  language  of  the  Delawares,  on  the 
other  hand,  differs  so  much  from  that  of  the  Six  Nations,  that 
they  cannot  understand  each  other.  It  is  much  easier  to  acquire 
the  language  of  the  Mingoes  than  that  of  the  Delawares. 

The  country  of  the  Six  Nations  is  not  mountainous  but 
very  level,  so-called  hills  being  of  but  little  account.  Indeed, 
the  hills  and  elevations  partake  of  the  swampy  nature  of  the  low 
land,  even  on  the  heights  one  is  in  the  same  kind  of  dens.e 
thicket  as  in  the  valleys,  in  which  the  sun  rarely  reaches  the 
ground. 

Concerning  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  it  is  yet  to  be  noted 
that  its  navigation  is  considerable,  even  though  there  are  many 
rapids,  which  render  the  unloading  of  boats  necessary.  From 
Quebeck  light  boats  are  used  as  far  as  Fontenac74  at  the  eastern 
end  of  Lake  Ontario,  a  distance  of  three  hundred  and  eighty 
miles.  Thence,  cargo  is  taken  in  sloops  across  the  lake  to 
Niagara  at  the  western  end,  a  distance  of  two  hundred  and 
twenty  miles.  From  this  point  it  is  taken  nine  miles  across 
country  to  navigable  water  and  thus  it  is  carried  through  Lake 
Erie  to  Detroit,  a  further  distance  of  two  hundred  miles. 


42  David  Zeisbergcr's  History 

From  this  digression  I  return  again  to  the  Alleghene  or 
Ohio  Region.  This  is  separated  from  Pennsylvania  and  the 
other  colonies  by  the  Alleghene  mountains.  The  most  consid 
erable  mountains  to  be  passed  on  the  road  (from  the  land  of 
the  Delawares)  to  Pittsburg  are  the  Sidling  Hill,  the  Alleghene 
Mountain  and  Laurel  Hill.75  In  other  directions  there  are  more, 
since  the  mountain  chains  at  times  divide  and  receive  different 
names  in  the  different  regions  in  which  they  lie,  though  they 
belong  to  the  same  system.  In  Pennsylvania  they  are  called  the 
Blue  Ridge,  viz.,  the  Little  and  the  Great  Blue  Ridge,  the  latter 
being  also  called  the  Wolf's  Mountain,  on  account  of  the  num 
ber  of  wolves  which  infest  it ;  and  in  the  country  about  Tulpe- 
hocken  and  Thiirnstein76  as  is  to  be  seen  on  the  chart,  and  an 
other  name  is  Jacob's  Height.77  The  Thiirnstein  belongs,  there 
fore,  to  the  Alleghene  Mountains,  as  appears  not  only  from  its 
position  but  also  from  similarity  in  mass,  breadth  and  height  to 
the  other  parts  of  that  range. 

This  mountain  chain  forms  a  boundary  between  this  region 
and  that  to  the  east  even  in  the  matter  of  weather  conditions. 
In  Pennsylvania  the  east  wind  generally  brings  rain.  This  is 
not  the  case  in  Ohio,  where  the  east  wind  rarely  blows  and 
then  hardly  above  twelve  hours  at  a  time.  The  south  and  west 
winds  bring  rain,  and  it  even  rains  sometimes  with  a  north 
west  wind.  In  Pennsylvania  northwest  wind  brings  clear  and 
fine  weather.  All  thunder  storms  rise  either  with  the  south, 
west  or  northwest  winds  and  a  land  rain  from  the  west  some 
times  continues  for  a  week. 

The  Alleghene  River  rises  in  a  swamp  lying  between  it  and 
the  Susquehanna,  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  to  the  north 
of  Pittsburg.  About  one  hundred  miles  to  the  north  of  that 
place  the  Venango  (in  the  Indian  tongue  Onenge)  empties  into 
it.  This  river  is  the  passage  to  Presquisle,78  Lake  Erie  and 
Niagara.79  On  the  journey  to  these  places  there  is  a  portage  of 
fifteen  miles.  Formerly  the  French  carried  on  considerable 
trade  along  this  route  and  all  their  provisions  were  in  this  way 
brought  to  Fort  du  Quesne,  now  called  Pittsburg,  when  this 
place  was  in  their  possession. 


North  American  Indians.  43 

At  Pittsburg  the  Monongehella,  which  takes  its  rise  in 
Virginia,  enters  into  the  river.  In  the  Indian  tongue  the  name 
of  this  river  was  Mechmenawungihilla,  which  signifies  a  high 
bank,  which  is  ever  washed  out  and  therefore  collapses.  Ten 
miles  up  this  river  on  Turtoise80  Creek  General  Braddock  was 
defeated  by  the  French  and  Indians  in  1755  and  at  Fort  Sigo- 
nier,81  fifty-four  miles  to  the  east  of  Pittsburg,  at  various  times 
during  those  wars  many  people  were  killed  by  the  Indians. 

The  Alleghene  is  a  navigable  river  and  as  one  says  in  Eng 
lish,  "of  gentle  current."  Large  vessels  may  pass  from  Pitts 
burg  down  the  Ohio  to  Illinoise  and  into  the  Mississippi,  which 
is  fifteen  hundred  miles,  and  to  a  French  island,  New  Orleans, 
in  the  last  named  river.  The  Ohio  empties  into  the  Mississippi 
fourteen  hundred  miles  below  Pittsburg.  Previous  to  this  war, 
the  east  side  of  this  river  was  already  thickly  settled,  but 
since  the  Indians  have  massacred  so  many,  most  settlers  have 
retreated.  Further  down,  about  six  hundred  miles  from  Pitts 
burg,  also  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  there  is  a  large  settle 
ment  of  the  whites  on  the  Kentuke82  River.  These  also  suffered 
much  from  the  Indians  in  the  late  war. 

Up  to  six  or  seven  years  ago  the  Delawares  lived  along  the 
Alleghene,  but  after  the  Six  Nations  had  sold  a  considerable 
portion  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river  to  the  whites,  they  re 
treated  to  the  Muskingum,  where  they  now  live.  This  stream 
rises  near  Cajahages83  in  a  small  lake,  and  the  Cajahage  River 
empties  into  Lake  Erie  only  a  short  distance  from  its  source. 

When  one  thinks  of  the  number  of  rivers  and  creeks  that 
flow  into  the  lakes,  one  ceases  to  wonder  at  the  existence  of 
the  Great  Lakes.  Lake  Huron,  Michillimakinac,  Michigan  and 
Superior,  which  lie  to  the  north  of  Detroit,  all  find  an  outlet 
in  Lake  Erie  and  this  in  turn  in  Lake  Ontario,  whence  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  rises.  In  all  these  lakes  no  current  is  observ 
able,  but  their  waters  are  clear  and  transparent,  abounding  in 
fish. 

Traders  have  journeyed  northward  from  Detroit  through 
Lake  Superior  and  beyond  to  the  neighborhood  of  Hudson  Bay 
in  the  interest  of  trade  with  the  Indians.  Such  a  journey  usually 
takes  a  year. 


44  David  Zeisberger's  History 

The  Muskingum  (meaning  Elk's  Eye,  so  called  because  of 
the  numbers  of  elk  that  formerly  f.ed  on  its  banks,  these  animals 
being  found  there  even  at  the  present  time)  empties  into  the 
Ohio  two  hundred  miles  below  Pittsburg.  It  is  navigable  for 
canoes  or  light  boats,  which  the  Indians  use  upon  it,  from  its 
source  to  its  mouth. 

The  country  is  diversified  with  hillocks  and  gentle  risings, 
but  no  great  mountains  are  to  be  seen  to  the  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghene  Mountains.  The  Indians  are,  therefore,  yet  in  the  pos 
session  of  the  best  land.  Along  the  creeks  and  rivers  the  soil 
is  very  rich  and  commonly  called  "The  Bottoms."  This  sort  of 
land  is  chosen  by  the  Indians  for  agricultural  purposes  not  only 
because  it  is  easily  worked,  but  also  because  it  yields  aboundant 
crops  for  many  years.  When,  however,  their  fields  begin  to 
grow  grass  they  leave  them  and  break  new  land,  for  they  re 
gard  it  as  too  troublesome  to  root  out  the  grass.  For  winter  crops 
such  soil  would  be  too  rich  and  would  yield  little  or  nothing. 
But  corn  and  all  else  raised  by  the  Indians  thrives  in  rich  soil. 

The  higher  lying  land,  generally  of  medium  richness,  though 
some  of  this  also  is  extraordinarily  fertile,  is  the  best  for  winter 
grains,  and  as  but  little  of  it  is  stony  soil  it  would  be  difficult  to 
find  a  spot  that  could  not  be  cultivated  to  advantage. 

Concerning  the  climate,  I  can  only  speak  from  a  twelve 
years'  acquaintance  with  the  country.  In  the  summer  it  is  quite 
warm,  especially  in  July  and  August,  which  are  the  two  hottest 
months ;  woolen  garments  can  hardly  be  worn  at  this  season 
of  the  year.  The  winter  is  generally  very  mild.  The  snow  is 
never  de,ep,  nor  does  it  remain  long  on  the  ground.  Last  win 
ter,  1779-80,  which  was  very  severe  in  Pensilvania,  snow  fell  once 
to  a  depth  of  two  feet.  In  eight  days  this  was  gone,  though 
the  ground  was  covered  with  snow  most  of  the  time  between 
New  Year  and  February.  As  I  have  neither  chart  nor  instru 
ment,  I  am  unable  to  say  in  what  degree  of  latitude  it  lies, 
though  I  reckon  it  to  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  Philadelphia.  A 
distance  of  a  hundred  English  miles  north  or  south  makes  a  very 
perceptible  difference  in  temperature ;  for  in  Sandusky  on  Lake 
Erie,  it  is  much  colder  and  the  snow  is  much  deeper  than  here  in 
the  Muskingum  Valley  and  along  the  Scioto,84  which  empties  into 


North  American  Indians.  45 

the  Ohio  three  hundred  miles  below  Pittsburg,  one  hundred  miles 
from  here,  snow  hardly  ever  remains  on  the  ground,  and  the 
ground  is  bare  for  most  of  the  winter.  In  autumn  and  even  up 
to  Christmas  and  New  Year  or  beyond  that  time,  there  is  little 
frost,  and  even  if  in  a  clear  night  the  ground  should  freeze,  it 
thaws  soon  after  sunrise.  There  are  very  few  clear,  beautiful 
days  in  the  winter-time ;  much  of  the  time  it  rains,  occasionally 
it  snows.  After  a  few  clear  days  a  change  may  be  looked  for. 
If  there  has  been  quite  a  snow,  rain  may  follow.  Yet  the  Mus- 
kingum,  not  having  a  strong  current,  is  frozen  over  when  there 
are  several  cold  nights  in  succession.  Usually  this  happens  once 
during  the  winter,  rarely  oftener. 

The  Indians  make  little  provision  to  feed  their  cattle  in 
winter,  for  as  there  is  no  deep  snow  and  the  weather  is  generally 
mild,  cattle  and  particularly  horses  can  forage  for  themselves, 
finding  feed  in  the  woods.  In  the  bottoms  grass  never  quite 
dies  away  but  remains  green  toward  the  end  of  March  and  be 
ginning  of  April  grows  again. 

Of  wild  fruits  the  strawberries,85  much  like  those  in  Europe, 
are  the  first  to  ripen  in  spring.  Blackberries,88  raspberries,87  bil 
berries,88  are  also  found,  though  not  native  to  these  parts,  for 
these  varieties  grow  best  on  hills  and  in  not  too  rich  soil.  Further, 
there  are  wild  gooseberries89  and  currants,90  the  latter  black  in 
color  and  with  a  somewhat  different  taste  from  that  of  the  red 
which  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  though  having  the  same  sort  of 
leaves.  There  are  two  varieties  of  cranberries  ;91  one  grows  in 
swamps  on  low  bushes  not  as  high  as  the  bilberry  bushes,  the 
other  on  small  trees.  For  both  the  Indians  have  one  name 
(Rakilun).  Of  the  wild  cherry,  there  are  three  kinds,  not  found 
in  Europe  at  all,  and  having  a  very  good  taste.  The  one  sort92 
grows  on  high  thick  trees,  which  are  found  in  large  numbers  and 
yield  a  very  fine  red  wood  that  is  well  suited  for  cabinet  work. 
The  other  kinds93  grow  on  bushes.  On  the  islands  in  the  Sus- 
quehanna,  cherries94  are  found,  very  like  the  cultivated  fruit, 
having  about  the  same  form  and  taste.  The  only  difference  is 
that  they  grow  neither  on  trees  nor  bushes,  but  on  vines,  which 
lie  on  the  ground  and  when  lifted  up  appear  laden  with  fruit. 


46  David  Zeisbergcr's  History 

These  grow  on  very  stony  ground  near  the  water,  where  the 
sunshine  is  particularly  hot.  In  these  parts  I  have  not  come 
across  this  variety. 

Besides,  there  are  mulberries,95  plums,96  and  wild  grapes 
of  three  sorts,  those  growing  on  high  ground97  or  hills  being 
the  best ;  those98  found  in  the  bottoms  are  very  sour.  Crabap- 
ples"  grow  in  great  plenty  and  the  Indians,  being  very  fond  of 
sharp  and  sour  fruit,  eat  them  in  abundance. 

Of  nuts  there  are  found:  (i)  The  well  known  hazel  nut,100 
(2)  the  hickory  nut,101  found  in  great  plenty  in  some  years 
and  which  the  Indians  gather  in  large  quantities  and  use  not 
only  as  they  find  them  —  they  have  a  very  sweet  taste  —  but 
also  extract  from  them  a  milky  juice  used  in  different  foods  and 
very  nourishing.  Sometimes  they  extract  an  oil  by  first  roasting 
the  nut  in  the  shell  under  hot  ashes  and  pounding  them  to  a 
fine  mash,  which  they  boil  in  water.  The  oil  swimming  on  the 
surface  is  skimmed  off  and  preserved  for  cooking  and  other 
purposes.  (3)  The  walnut  of  two  varieties,  the  white  walnut102 
deriving  its  name  from  the  color  of  the  wood  which,  strictly 
speaking,  is  gray,  and  the  black  walnut,103  of  which  the  wood 
is  dark-brown,  sometimes  even  shading  into  violet.  The  latter 
is  very  much  used  by  cabinet  makers  for  tables,  chests  and  other 
things.  The  nuts,  the  one  variety  having  a.  very  hard  shell,  are 
eaten,  but  are  very  oily. 

The  papa104  tree,  which  I  have  seen  nowhere  else  than  along 
the  Ohio,  bears  a  very  beautiful  fruit,  in  form  and  size  resemb 
ling  a  middle  sized  cucumber,  of  an  agreeable  smell  and  taste. 

Wild  laurel105  is  found  in  the  bottoms  in  great  abundance ; 
the  berries  are  smaller  than  thos,e  found  elsewhere,  but  have 
about  the  same  taste.  Of  these,  even  the  whites  make  use. 
They  grow  on  bushes,  the  wood  of  which  has  a  strong  spicy 
odor  and  taste,  used  by  the  Indians  for  medicine  and  called  by 
the  English,  spicewood.106 

Chestnuts107  are  very  plentiful  in  some  years.  The  Indians 
gather  them  and  prepare  various  dishes  with  them.  A  larger 
variety  of  chestnuts108  is  native  to  these  parts,  but  these  are 
not  fit  to  eat. 


North  American  Indians.  47 

Of  roots,  wild  potatoes109  and  wild  parsnips  are  found. 
Bread  is  baked  of  both,  which  one  may  be  driven  to  eat  by 
pangs  of  hunger.  The  Indians  look  for  both  roots  when  famine 
threatens  and  the  supply  of  corn  runs  low,  sometimes  sustaining 
life  with  them  for  a  considerable  period. 

A  kind  of  bean,  called  by  the  Indians  earth-bean,  because  it 
grows  close  to  the  ground,  is  also  found  and  tastes  when  boiled, 
like  the  chestnut. 

Wild  citrons110  or  May  apples,  grow  on  a  stalk  not  over  a 
foot  high.  The  Indians  enjoy  eating  the  fruit,  which  has  a  sour 
but  pleasant  taste.  The  roots  are  a  powerful  poison  which,  who 
eats,  dies  in  a  few  hours'  time  unless  promptly  given  an  emetic. 

Watermelons  and  muskmelons,  which  grow  by  culture  only, 
are  very  refreshing  in  summer.  Of  some  watermelons  the  meat 
is  yellow  and  the  seeds  black ;  of  others  the  meat  and  seeds  red. 

The  forests  contain  mainly  oak  trees ;  other  kinds  of  trees 
are,  however,  also  found.  They  are  not  dense,  but  generally 
sufficiently  open  to  allow  comfortable  passage  on  foot  or  horse 
back.  There  are  five  varieties  of  oak,  white-oak, 110a  black-oak, llob 
red-oak. 110c  Spanish-oak,llod  and  swamp-oak.100e  The  red-oak  has 
very  narrow,  small  leaves  and  bears  little  colored  acorns,  such  as 
I  have  seen  nowhere  else.  Besides  these,  hickory  trees  of  three 
sorts.111  ash,112  white  and  red  beech,113  sassafras,114  in  some  places 
very  thick,  poplar115  and  chestnut11'5  are  the  kinds  generally 
found  on  high  lying  land.  In  the  bottoms  there  are  walnut, 
linden,117  maple,118  water-beech,119  that  grow  near  to  the  water 
and  often  attain  great  height  and  girth,  hawthorne120  and  crab- 
apple. 12] 

The  Hoop-ash,122  a  little  known  tree  and  found  only  in  this 
region,  has  this  name  because  barral-hoops  are  made  of  the 
wood.  It  grows  in  the  bottoms  and  is  of  little  use  otherwise,  as 
the  wood  easily  rots. 

The  Honey-locust12''5  is  likewise  found  in  the  bottoms.  This 
tree  but  little  resembles  the  locust  of  P.ensilvanien,  except  that 
there  is  some  similarity  in  foliage,  though  the  leaves  are  smaller 
and  finer.  The  trunks  of  the  thickest  trees  are  two  feet  in 
diameter  on  the  average.  The  trunk  is  covered  with  thorns 
that  stand  straight  out,  are  about  six  inches  long  and  very  sharp. 


48  David  Zeisberger's  History 

The  wood  is  red,  very  hard  and  heavy  and  does  not  rot  very 
quickly  in  the  ground.  It  bears  pods  that  fall  off  in  the  autumn. 
Besides  the  seeds,  the  pods  contain  a  kind  of  molasses  or  honey, 
thus  accounting  for  the  name  Europeans  have  given  the  tree. 
The  Indians  call  it  the  thorn-tree  on  account  of  its  many  thorns. 
Sugar  trees  are  usually  found  in  low,  rich  soil,  sometimes, 
also,  on  higher  land  and  in  more  northerly  regions  even  on 
hills,  where,  however,  the  soil  is  very  moist.  The  Delawares 
call  this  tree  the  Achsuntuimunschi,  that  is,  the  stone-tree,  on 
account  of  the  hardness  of  the  wood.  The  Mingoes  give  it  a 
name  signifying  the  sugar  tree,  as  do  the  Europeans.  From 
the  sap  of  the  tree  sugar  is  boiled.  This  is  done  by  the  Indians 
in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  beginning  in  February  and  con 
tinuing  to  the  ,end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April,  according 
as  spring  is  early  or  late.  In  this  region  it  is  possible  to  boil 
sugar  even  in  fall  after  there  has  been  frost  and  in  winter,  if 
the  season  is  mild.  For  as  soon  as  the  trees  thaw  a  little  the 
sap  begins  to  run  and  then  the  trees  are  tapped.  As,  however, 
at  that  time  of  the  year  the  weather  is  very  uncertain  and  it  is 
possible  that  there  should  be  a  cold  wave  at  any  time,  it  is 
hardly  worth  the  effort  to  make  the  necessary  arrangements 
and  is  hardly  ever  done,  unless  some  one  be  driven  of  necessity 
to  provide  sugar  for  the  household.  This,  we  ourselves  have 
been  obliged  to  do  and  the  sisters  of  our  congregation  have 
already  boiled  a  quantity  of  sugar  for  congregational  love- 
feasts,  shortly  before  Christmas. 

Spring  is  the  proper  season  for  boiling  sugar.  The  fol 
lowing  preparations  are  made.  A  number  of  small  troughs 
are  made  for  receiving  the  sap.  Usually,  the  Indians  make  them 
of  wood,  cutting  them  out  roughly  with  a  hatchet.  Some  In 
dians  are  able  to  make  tw.enty  or  thirty  of  them  in  a  day.  Some 
do  not  go  to  so  much  trouble,  but  make  dishes  of  the  bark  or 
bast  of  a  tree,  which  serve  quite  as  well,  but  are  good  for  no 
more  than  one  season.  According  as  they  have  large  or  numer 
ous  kettles  and  troughs  they  can  make  much  sugar,  for  there 
is  no  lack  of  trees.  Besides  the  smaller  troughs  and  dishes, 


North  American  Indians.  49 

there  must  be  several  of  larger  size  in  which  the  sap  is  col 
lected.  If  one  is  well  supplied  with  utensils,  there  is  this  ad 
vantage,  that  on  days  when  the  sap  flows  freely  much  may  be 
collected,  which  will  enable  one  to  keep  on  boiling  when  the 
sap  does  not  flow  plentifully.  The  sap  flows  most  plentifully 
when  it  freezes  at  night  and  the  sun  shines  during  the  day.  At 
night  it  commonly  ceases  to  run.  The  same  is  true  in  case  of 
warm  or  rainy  weather.  As  soon  as  there  has  been  frost  the 
sap  runs  again.  There  is  a  time  in  the  boiling  season  when  sap 
once  or  twice  begins  to  flow  in  considerable  quantities,  both 
day  and  night.  When  this  occurs  the  height  of  the  sugar  season 
is  on.  The  sap  which  flows  after  this  is  not  so  good  and  yields 
less  sugar.  The  last  sugar  secured  in  the  spring  is  always  of 
inferior  quality.  Hence,  toward  the  end  of  the  season  no  sugar, 
but  only  molasses  is  in  most  cases  boiled. 

The  length  of  the  season  is  determined  by  the  weather  con 
ditions.  If  spring  is  late  and  night  frosts  continue  for  a  con 
siderable  time,  the  flowing  season  is  the  longer.  With  the  early 
advent  of  warm  weather  the  season  terminates  very  quickly. 
The  shortest  season  lasts  about  a  month,  the  longest  nearly  two 
months. 

The  thickest  of  the  trees  are  two  feet,  sometimes  more,  in 
diameter.  Those  of  middle  size,  which  are  still  young,  have 
many  branches  and  are  growing,  yield  the  most  sap.  Expe 
rience  has  shown  that  such  a  tree  will  yield  about  sixty  gallons 
of  sap  while  sugar  is  being  boiled,  and  thereafter  another  sixty 
for  molasses.  Seven  to  eight  gallons  of  sap  are  regarded  as 
necessary  for  a  pound  of  sugar.  Such  a  tree  may,  therefore, 
yield  more  than  seven  pounds  of  sugar  and  seven  quarts  of 
molasses.  It  has  also  been  found  that  a  tree  which  one  year 
has  yielded  very  freely,  gives  but  little  the  next,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  a  tree  that  has  yielded  but  little  one  season,  gives  largely 
the  next.  The  sap,  which  is  of  a  brownish  color  and  becomes 
darker  the  longer  it  boils,  is  boiled  until  it  gets  to  be  of  the  con 
sistency  of  molasses,  is  then  poured  off  and  kept.  Wher  a  suf 
ficient  quantity  of  this  consistency  has  been  secured,  it  is  boiled 
over  a  slow  fire  until  it  becomes  sugar.  It  is  important  to  boil 

4 


50  David  Zeisberger's  History 

this  over  a  slow  fire,  for  the  sap  readily  boils  over  and  is  easily 
burned.  If  the  boiled  sap  is  stirred  until  cold,  the  sugar  becomes 
granulated  and  is  as  fine  as  the  West  Indian  sugar.  As  the 
Indians  lack  the  dishes  and  do  not  care  to  take  the  time  to 
prepare  it  in  this  way,  they  usually  form  it  into  cakes,  put  it  in 
a  kettle  or  dish,  or  in  default  of  these,  on  a  stone  and  let  it 
cool,  when  it  becomes  hard  and  may  be  ,easily  preserved  in 
baskets.  If  the  troughs  and  kettles  used  for  collecting  the  sap 
are  made  of  wood  that  does  not  give  color,  the  sugar  becomes 
the  finer,  but  if  it  gives  color,  as  does  the  white  walnut,  the 
sugar  becomes  black  the  first  year ;  thereafter,  this  is  not  the 
case. 

When  everything  is  prepared,  an  oblique  incision  is  made 
in  the  tree  and  at  the  lower  end  of  the  same  a  thin  wedge,  three 
or  four  inches  broad,  is  forced  in,  whence  the  sap  runs  down 
into  the  vessel  placed  below.  According  as  the  sap  runs  freely 
or  contrarywise,  the  dishes  must  be  emptied  at  given  intervals, 
day  and  night.  According  to  the  manner  of  making  the  incision 
one  may  determine  whether  a  tree  shall  be  good  for  many  or  few 
years.  If  large  openings  are  made  the  tree  is  soon  spoiled  and  noth 
ing  is  gained,  for  the  sap  runs  no  faster.  In  this  matter,  how 
ever,  the  Indians  are  very  careless,  for  trees  are  numerous  and 
after  they  have  used  one  place  for  three  or  four  years,  they  seek 
out  another.  There  is,  strange  to  say,  no  tree  among  all  the  rest 
so  hardy  as  the  sugar-tree,  for  even  if  the  stem  is  cut  all  around, 
so  that  it  can  no  longer  be  used,  it  does  not  die.  Hence,  the 
Indians  very  reluctantly  make  their  fields  where  there  are  sugar- 
trees,  as  these  are  not  to  be  exterminated,  except  they  be  cut 
down.  This,  however,  is  true  that  when  trees  have  been  used 
for  eight  or  nine  years  they  give  less  sap  than  formerly,  as  they 
are  full  of  incisions  and  scars.  An  incision  having  been  made 
in  a  tree  in  the  spring  of  the  year  and  the  sap  having  flowed 
for  some  time,  the  incision  needs  to  be  enlarged,  though  only  a 
little.  This  may  be  done  two  or  three  times  in  a  season. 

As  the  Indians  have  trees  in  abundance,  their  labors  are 
richly  rewarded.  For  if  a  man  owns  a  kettle  of  ten  or  twelve 
gallons  and  has  a  few  smaller  ones  with  which  to  keep 
the  large  one  filled,  it  will  be  possible  for  him  to  make  several 


North  American  Indians.  51 

hundred  pounds  of  sugar  in  a  season  and  a  quantity  of  molasses, 
besides. 

Sugar  boiling  is  chiefly  the  employment  of  women.  Even 
widows  are  able  to  earn  enough  by  it  to  secure  clothing  and 
whatever  else  they  may  need.  While  the  women  are  thus  en 
gaged,  the  men  hunt  and  supply  meat.  As  the  deer  skins  are  of 
little  value  at  that  season  of  the  year,  they  generally  hunt  bear, 
which  they  se,ek  in  the  rocks,  hollow  trees  or  thickets  in  their 
winter  quarters.  Bears  are  at  this  time  generally  fat. 

Dog-wood124  is  also  found  in  these  parts.  The  rind  of  the 
root  is  used  in  the  apothecary  shops  in  place  of  Jesuit-Bark.125 
This  tree  grows  to  be  neither  large  nor  high. 

Red  Cedars120'  are  found  along  the  Muskingum  finer  and 
larger  than  I  have  seen  elsewhere  in  North  America.  They  do 
not  grow  on  the  mountains  as  in  Pensilvanien,  where  they  are 
stunted  and  scrubby,  but  in  the  bottoms. 

The  spruce  tree127  is  neither  a  fir  nor  a  pine,  according  to 
my  view,  but  something  between  the  two.  In  this  region  the 
tree  is  found  only  occasionally  along  the  creeks  and  rivers.  In 
more  northerly  districts,  however,  there  are  great  spruce  forests 
arid  swamps. 

Pitch-pine128  is  rarely  found  here  and  white  pine129  not  at 
all ;  a  hundred  miles  to  the  south  one  may  see  many  specimens 
of  either  variety.  Fir-trees130  I  have  seen  near  the  source  of  the 
Ohio  and  pines131  not  far  from  Bethlehem,  across  the  Blue 
Mountains  in  the  great  swamp. 

Vines  are  very  numerous,  especially  in  the  bottoms.  They 
climb  up  the  trees  and  look  like  anchor  strands,  often  being 
thicker  than  these.  The  grapes  they  bear  have  a  sour  taste. 
Those  which  grow  on  the  highlands  and  only  have  short,  tender 
shoots,  being  frequently  disturbed  in  their  growth  by  brush- 
fires,  have  the  best  grapes.  These  have  a  good  taste.  Expe 
rience  has  taught  that  good  wine  may  be  made  of  both  kinds. 

The  elm  tree,132  already  noticed  above,  is  of  no  particular 
use,  for  the  wood  rots  quickly,  except  that  the  Mingoes  make 
bast  canoes  and  kettles  for  sugar  boiling  of  the  bark,  which  is 
very  tough. 


52  David  Zcisbergcr's  History 

The  bark  of  stone  birch133  trees,  as  of  many  others,  the  In 
dians  pound  fine,  mix  with  water  and  use  as  a  medicine.  This 
is  the  only  variety  of  birch  trees  here.  In  Pensilvanien  there 
are  birch  trees  like  those  of  Europe,  though  they  do  not  grow 
to  any  size. 

Aspen  trees134  are  also  found,  though  not  in  great  numbers 
nor  everywhere.  One  kind  of  tree  is  found  here  that  I  have  seen 
nowhere  else.  The  wood  is  soft  and  yellowish.  The  leaves 
are  smooth  and  oval-shaped.  The  Indians  call  it  Wiseweminscki, 
the  yellow  tree.135 

Of  oil  wells  I  have  seen  three  kinds,  (  I )  wells  that  have 
an  outlet;  (2)  wells  that  have  no  outlet,  but  are  stagnant  pools; 
(3)  wells  in  creeks  and  even  in  the  Ohio  at  two  different  points, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  one  another. 

In  the  wells  which  have  an  outlet,  oil  and  water  together 
exude  from  the  earth  and  where  these  flow  grass  and  soil  be 
come  oily.  When  there  is  no  means  of  discharge  one  sees 
nothing  more  than  oil  welling  up,  which,  if  none  has  been  taken 
off  for  some  time,  floats  an  inch  or  more  in  depth  on  the  water. 
In  the  creeks  it  is  possible  to  see  some  of  the  places  where 
the  oil  flows,  others  not,  for  often  the  current  carries  the  oil 
with  it  at  such  rate  that  you  see  the  oil  over  all  the  surface  of 
the  water.  In  the  Ohio  there  are,  also,  such  places  in  the  region 
of  the  oil  wells.  Here  the  current  is  very  gentle  and  the  Indians 
skim  off  the  oil,  though  it  is  not  easy  to  do  this  as  the  current, 
even  though  not  swift,  keeps  carrying  it  along.  Such  places 
are  usually  revealed  by  the  strong  odor.  Even  though  the  water 
of  a  river  keeps  carrying  away  the  oil,  one  may  smell  it  at  a 
distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  well.  The  soil  near 
an  oil  well  is  poor,  either  a  cold,  clayey  ground,  or  if  it  is  near 
a  creek,  a  poor  quality  of  sand  at  the  top.  Neither  good  grass 
or  wood  will  grow  nearby,  hardly  anything  more  than  a  few 
stunted  oak  trees. 

If  the  Indians  wish  to  collect  oil,  which  they  prefer  to  do 
where  the  well  has  no  discharge,  as  it  is  there  most  easily  secured, 
they  first  throw  away  the  old  oil  floating  on  top,  as  it  has  a 
stronger  odor  than  that  which  wells  up  fresh  from  the  earth.136 


North  American  Indians.  53 

The  odor  is  somewhat  like  that  of  tar,  though  not  very  much  so. 
They  stir  the  water  violently  then  let  it  settle  and  become  clear. 
The  more  the  pool  is  stirred  the  more  abundantly  does  the  oil 
flow.  When  it  is  clear  they  scoop  it  into  kettles,  and,  as  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  getting  some  water,  boil  it  and  preserve  it 
for  use.  They  use  it  as  a  medicine  in  all  sorts  of  cases  for  ex 
ternal  application,  thus  for  tooth-ache,  head-ache,  swelling,  rheu 
matism,  strained  joints.  Some  also  take  it  internally  and  it  ap 
pears  to  have  hurt  no  one  in  this  way.  Some,  indeed,  declare 
that  the  oil  flows  from  the  coal  deposits,  but  this  is  not  likely, 
for  in  the  first  place,  there  is  no  sign  of  pit  coal  to  be  seen  in 
this  region  —  one  sees  nothing  more  than  poor  sandstone  and, 
in  the  second  place,  in  other  parts  where  there  is  much  pit  coal, 
as  for  example,  along  the  Muskingum,  no  sign  of  oil  is  to  be 
seen.  Were  the  oil  to  be  found  there,  the  Indians  would  know 
of  it,  for  they  value  it  highly  and  have  looked  for  it,  but  found 
none.  Most  probably  it  comes  out  of  the  earth.  It  is  brownish 
in  color  and  may  be  used  in  lamps,  for  it  burns  well. 

Salt  springs  are  to  be  found  both  along  the  Muskingum  and 
along  the  Ohio.  Of  this  salt  the  Indians  make  little  use;  they 
prefer  to  buy  it  from  the  whites,  even  though  they  have  to  pay 
a  high  price  for  it  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  has  to  be  brought 
a  considerable  distance  from  the  seaports.  Moreover,  they  use 
very  little  salt  and  seem  not  to  require  it.  They  often  eat  their 
food  unsalted,  even  though  the}-  may  have  the  salt,  until  they  feel 
a  longing-  for  it. 

These  salt  springs  are  usually  to  be  found  on  the  bank  of 
a  creek  or  even  in  the  middle  of  the  creek  on  a  sand-bank,  the 
fresh  water  flowing  on  both  sides.  The  Indians  have  on  occa 
sion  boiled  a  considerable  quantity  of  salt  in  a  short  time  at 
such  a  well,  so  that  it  would  appear  worth  the  labor  to  get  it, 
especially  as  it  is  so  expensive. 

There  are,  also,  many  salt  licks  to  which  cattle,  horses 
and  game  go  in  large  numbers.  These  are  generally  springs 
that  have  salt  or  saltpetre137  in  them. 

The  common  sort  of  stones  in  this  region  along  the  Ohio 
are  the  sandstones.  Some  are  very  hard,  others  soft.  They 


54  David  Zeisberger's  History 

are,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  gray,  fine  sand  and  make  as  good 
whetstones  as  one  might  wish.  Rocks  you  meet  occasionally 
along  the  Ohio,  but  away  from  the  river  and  here  along  the 
Muskingum  very  few,  even  most  of,  the  mountains  and  hills  are 
not  rocky. 

Pit-coal  is  found  in  abundance,  but  as  there  is  no  lack  of 
wood  it  is  little  used  and  hardly  thought  of  by  the  Indians.  In 
Pittsburg  the  coal  is  used  in  fire-places  and  by  blacksmiths. 

A  kind  of  stone,  black  in  color,  is  found  here,  that  is  easily 
worked  and  cut.  It  has  no  sand  in  its  composition  and  the 
Indians  make  tobacco  pipes  of  it,  some  doing  very  neat  work. 

There  is  also  a  kind  of  stone,  blue  in  color,  which  is  very 
hard.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  limestone  of  Pensilvanien, 
but  examination  has  shown  it  to  be  different.  Limestone  has  not 
yet  been  found  in  this  region. 

A  mineralogist  would  find  many  more  varieties  to  describe, 
to  which  I  am  unable  to  give  even  the  names,  especially  along 
the  shores  of  the  river,  where  all  kinds  may  be  seen,  green,  yel 
low,  blue,  red  and  black.  About  ore  I  know  little  or  nothing 
concerning  this  region.  The  Indians  believed  themselves  to  have 
found  gold  and  silver,  but  what  they  produced  as  precious  ore, 
because  it  resembled  this  somewhat,  on  the  test  and  examination 
of  whites  was  found  to  be  sulphurous  substance.138  Whatever 
glitters,  the  Indians  are  apt  to  look  upon  at  once  as  being  gold 
or  silver. 

The  Cherokees,  who  through  the  years  have  had  much  inter 
course  with  the  Delawares,  brought  with  them  many  tobacco 
pipes  for  trade.  These  they  made  of  quite  white  stone,  probably 
white  marble.139  When  completed  they  blackened  the  pipes  and 
in  such  a  way  that  they  retained  their  color.  These  pipes  are 
made  so  neatly  that  they  are  no  heavier  than  the  European 
pipes. 

From  the  Mississippi  the  Indians  bring  red  marble,  when 
ever  they  come  from  that  direction.  Of  this  pipes  are  also  made. 
Such  pipes,  however,  are  as  a  rule  to  be  seen  only  in  the  posses 
sion  of  chiefs  or  captains,  for  not  many  of  them  are  to  be  had. 
A  pipe  of  this  sort  is  generally  used  in  council  or  on  solemn 
occasions.  This  is  carried  about  bv  the  chief  counsellor,  each 


North  American  Indians.  55 

one  present  draws  a  few  whiffs  of  smoke  and  this  is  called  smok 
ing  the  peace-pipe. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  clay.  There  is  the  white,  which  is 
almost  like  chalk  and  with  which,  when  dry,  one  can  write  as 
with  chalk.140  Another  variety  is  quite  black.  This,  however, 
becomes  quite  white  when  burned.  Besides  these,  gray  and 
yellow  clays  are  found.  A  sort  of  yellow  earth,  rather  of  an 
orange  tinge  is  found,  of  which  the  Indians,  especially  the  war 
riors,  make  a  fine  color  by  burning.14'  With  this  they  paint 
themselves  and  they  are  particularly  careful  that  the  head  shall 
be  always  red.  It  is  not  too  much  for  the  Wiondats  to  come 
here  to  Tuscarawi,  a  distance  of  at  least  a  hundred  miles,  to 
supply  themselves  with  this  red  coloring  matter. 

Concerning  plants  and  roots  of  medicinal  virtue,  it  would 
be  possible,  if  one  were  to  devote  himself  to  inquiry,  to  secure 
a  great  deal  of  information  from  the  Indians,  for  what  one  of 
these  does  not  know  another  does,  each  man  and  woman  having 
some  knowledge  in  this  direction,  some  more,  some  less.  Hence, 
the  custom  that  a  patient  who  has  consulted  an  Indian  and  se 
cured  a  medicine  from  him  without,  however,  being  benefited, 
will  go  immediately  to  another ;  if  no  relief  is  obtained  through 
his  advice,  the  patient  goes  to  a  third,  a  fourth  until  he  finds 
one  whose  medicine  helps.  For  many  ailments  they  have  very 
good  remedies,  e.  g.,  for  rheumatism.  In  respect  to  this  affliction 
I  have  witnessed  instances  where  they  have  effected  a  thorough 
cure  and  not  only  once  or  twice.  At  times  they  can  secure 
desired  results  with  only  two  or  three  kinds  of  roots,  at  other 
times  more  are  required.  If  a  simple  remedy  does  not  afford 
relief,  they  may  use  twenty  or  more  kinds  of  roots.  Even  in 
such  cases  I  know  of  cures  having  been  effected.  In  treating 
rheumatism,  bathing  and  sweating  play  a  great  part. 

They  have  remedies  even  for  fevers.  When  a  patient  has 
been  given  a  dose,  they  are  generally  able  to  tell  from  its  work 
ings  whether  he  will  recover  or  die.  If  he  does  not  retain  the 
medicine,  this  is  regarded  as  a  sign  that  he  will  hardly  recover. 
I  have  paid  some  attention  to  this  and  like  cases  of  treatment 
and  found  that  the  Indians  have  generally  been  correct  in  their 


56  David  Zeisberger's  History 

predictions.  In  one  important  respect,  according  to  my  opinion, 
they  make  mistakes,  namely,  in  not  properly  measuring  doses 
and  often  needlessly  torturing  patients.  Hence,  it  is  that  in  con 
nection  with  the  external  hurts,  where  over-treatment  is  less 
likely  to  occur,  they  have  the  better  results,  as  is  the  case  with 
rheumatism,  for  which  they  use  only  external  applications.  One 
Indian  knows  of  good  remedies  for  one  disease  or  kind  of  in 
jury,  another  another.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  they  rarely  re 
veal  their  knowledge  to  each  other,  much  of  the  practical  knowl 
edge  is  lost. 

In  the  matter  of  diseases  peculiar  to  women,  the  women 
know  a  number  of  remedies,  which  usually  act  quickly  and 
well,  as  in  the  case  of  hard  labor,  which  sometimes  occurs,  though 
not  frequently,  and  in  other  troubles.  If  mothers  cannot  suckle 
children  for  want  of  milk,  they  are  able,  by  use  of  a  drink,  to 
increase  the  supply.142 

In  the  use  of  poisonous  roots  the  Indians  are  well  versed, 
and  there  are  many  melancholy  examples  where  they  have  by 
their  use  destroyed  themselves  or  others.  If  a  case  of  poi 
soning  is  taken  in  time,  the  effect  of  the  poisonous  root  may 
be  prevented  by  inducing  vomiting.  In  case  assistance  is  ren 
dered  too  late,  death  follows,  as  a  rule,  in  a  few  hours.  There 
are  poisonous  roots  that  operate  by  slow  degrees,  in  some  cases 
illness  may  last  a  year  or  longer. 

The  so-called  Poison  Vine143  grows  plentifully  in  the  bot 
toms.  It  climbs  up  the  trees,  much  as  a  grape  vine  will,  the 
main  stem  becoming  as  thick  as  an  arm.  Some  are  affected 
with  swelling  in  the  face  and  body  if  they  touch  it,  others,  even 
when  the  wind  blows  over  it  upon  them.  This  is  very  painful 
until  cured.  Others  do  not  suffer  from  the  vine  at  all.  This 
holds  good  of  Indians  as  of  others. 

There  are  some  poisonous  trees.144  These  do  not  attain 
great  height.  They  have  a  milky  juice  under  the  bark  which 
is  very  poisonous. 

The  bark  of  many  different  kinds  of  trees  is  used  by  the 
Indians  for  preparing  medicine.  Occasionally,  you  will  meet 
an  Indian  who  has  knowledge  in  this  kind  of  remedies,  but 
knows  nothing  of  roots  or  herbs.  With  the  white  walnut  bark,145 


North  American  Indians.  57 

used  externally  and  internally,  they  effect  many  cures.  Laid 
upon  flesh  wounds  this  relieves  pain  at  once,  prevents  swelling 
and  accelerates  healing.  Applied  externally  in  case  of  tooth 
ache,  head-ache  or  pain  in  the  limbs,  this  brings  speedy  relief. 
Beyond  question  there  are  many  roots  and  herbs  not  found 
in  Europe ;  perhaps  it  would  be  safe  to  say  that  this  is  true  of 
most  here  found,  but  as  I  am  no  authority  in  this  subject  and 
know  no  names,  except  perhaps  the  Indian  designations,  I  will 
add  nothing  further  about  roots  and  herbs.  Doubtless,  there  are 
books  from  which  one  might  get  more  information  than  it  is 
in  my  power  to  give. 

The  following  quadrupeds  are  to  be  found  along  the  Ohio: 
In  the  first  place,  there  are  the  deer,146  whose  skins  are  much 
used  in  barter  and  trade  by  the  Indians.  Their  horns  are  not 
straight,  but  bent  toward  each  other  and  have  prongs.  From 
May  until  September  they  are  red,  after  that  they  lose  the  red 
hair  and  their  hide  is  covered  with  long,  gray  hair,  which  is  their 
winter  coat.  At  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  they  shed 
their  horns ;  new  ones  grow  in  spring.  These  are  at  first  and 
until  they  attain  their  full  size,  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  which 
peels  off  when  the  horns  harden.  The  tail  is  about  a  foot  long 
and  stands  up  straight  when  they  run.  As  the  under  side  of  the 
tail  is  white  it  is  possible  to  see  them  running  at  a  great  dis 
tance.  The  young  are  born  in  June  or  about  that  time,  are  red, 
spotted  with  white,  until  in  the  fall  when  they  become  gray. 
D.eer  have  young  each  spring,  sometimes  two.  As,  however, 
they  are  hunted  so  persistently  at  the  call  of  trade,  their  num 
bers  diminish  with  each  year,  even  though  the  forests  are  of 
vast  extent,  for  the  hunters  are  many.  A  large  buckskin  is 
valued  at  a  Spanish  dollar ;  two  doeskins  are  regarded  as  equal 
in  value  to  one  buckskin.147 

The  bear  is  quite  black,  has  short  ears,  a  thick  head  and 
quite  a  sharp  snout.148  It  has  but  a  very  short  tail  and  great 
strong  claws  on  his  feet.  It  can  easily  climb  the  trees  and  bring 
down  chestnuts  and  acorns.  This  is  done,  however,  only  when 
these  are  not  ripe  and  do  not,  therefore,  fall  down.  They  gen 
erally  break  off  the  branches,  throw  them  down  and  then  climb 


58  David  Zeisberger's  History 

down  to  consume  the  nuts.  Where  there  is  food  and  mast  they 
are  found.  It  is  as  if  they  knew  that  in  this  or  that  region  it 
would  be  good  for  them  to  live.  In  the  fall,  when  the  Indians 
hunt  the  deer,  they  take  no  notice  of  the  bears ;  otherwise  they 
would  spoil  their  fall  hunting.  They  do,  however,  notice  their 
tracks  and  whither  they  lead.  At  the  end  of  December  the  bears, 
having  fattened,  seek  their  winter  quarters,  which  they  prepare 
in  the  trunks  of  hollow  trees  or  in  caves  or  the  thickest  part 
of  the  forest,  where  many  old  trees  lie  piled  up.  They  leave 
their  winter  quarters  in  early  spring,  if  they  have  young,  of 
which  there  are  generally  two,  not  until  May.  During  this 
period  they  are  said  to  eat  nothing,  but  to  live  on  their  own 
fat.  When  the  deer  hunt  of  the  fall,  at  which  season  skins  are 
best,  is  over,  the  Indians  immediately  prepare  for  the  bear  hunt. 
They  are  remarkably  expert  in  finding  out  the  haunts  of  these 
animals.  If  the  bears  are  in  hollow  trees,  it  is  frequently  neces 
sary  to  cut  down  the  tree,  as  the  bear  will  not  leave  his  retreat 
otherwise.  In  case  the  bear  comes  out  when  they  hammer  on  the 
tree  and  make  a  noise,  they  stand  prepared  with  their  guns  to 
kill  him  as  soon  as  most  of  his  bulk  is  emerged.  Their  skins 
are  no  great  object  for  trade,  hence  the  Indians  prefer  to  use 
them  for  their  sleeping  places,  for  which  the  long  hair  makes 
them  peculiarly  useful.  There  is  likewise  a  kind  of  bear,  much 
larger  than  the  common  bear,  with  much  hair  on  the  legs,  but 
little  on  the  bodies,  which  appear  quite  smooth.149  The  Indians 
call  it  the  king  of  bears,  for  they  have  found  by  experience  that 
many  bears  will  willingly  follow  it.  While  all  the  bears  are  carniv 
orous,  and,  therefore,  flesh  of  game  kept  by  the  Indians  hanging  on 
trees  forms  for  them  a  welcome  repast,  or  they  are  fond  of  feed 
ing  on  swine  they  catch  in  the  forest,  this  kind  of  bear  is  par 
ticularly  voracious.  Many  instances  are  known  where  they  have 
seized  upon  even  defenseless  Indian  women  and  children.  In 
more  northerly  regions,  as,  e.  g.,  in  the  country  of  the  Mingoes, 
these  are  more  frequently  found  and  they  have  killed  many 
Indians. 

Elk  are  in  my  estimation  most  like  the  European  stag,150  and 
I  have  often  thought  that  they  must  be  the  same  species  and 
that  what  is  here  called  the  stag  is  the  European  fallow  deer. 


North  American  Indians.  59 

but  as  I  have  seen  neither  stag  nor  fallow  deer  in  Europe  I  can 
not  speak  authoritatively.  I  recognize  that  the  English  distin 
guish  between  the  elk  and  the  stag  in  Europe.  They,  also,  shed 
their  coat  in  spring  and  are  reddish  in  color  during  the  sum 
mer  like  the  deer.  In  fall  they  are  light  gray  and  in  winter 
dark  gray.  The  bucks  have  long,  heavy  antlers  with  many 
prongs.  These  they  shed  each  year  as  do  the  deer.  The  tail 
is  quite  short.  As  the  skins  are  very  thick  and  heavy  and  of  no 
particular  value,  elk  do  not  tempt  the  Indians  to  the  chase.  Oc 
casionally,  one  is  shot  that  happens  near  an  Indian,  but  most 
of  the  flesh  is  left  in  the  forest  for  beasts  of  prey,  even  though 
the  animals  are  always  fat,  in  summer  as  in  winter  and  do  not 
become  lean,  like  the  deer. 

The  buffaloes151  are  dark  brown  in  color,  covered  with  long 
hair,  or  rather  soft  down  mixed  with  hair.  Their  legs  are  short, 
the  body  is  very  heavy.  They  have  a  hunch  upon  their  backs, 
just  above  the  shoulders.  This  diminishes  toward  the  rear, 
hence,  they  appear  much  shorter  from  the  back  than  from  the 
front.  They  have  a  thick  head  and  a  long  beard  depends  from 
the  chin.  Altogether,  they  present  a  terrible  appearance.  Their 
horns  are  short,  but  thick  and  quite  black.  The  buffaloes  are  a 
good  deal  heavier  and  larger  than  cattle.  One  that  I  have  seen 
was  a  yearling,  raised  by  the  Indians  and  quite  tame ;  even  this 
was  the  size  of  a  small  cow,  that  has  already  had  calf.  At  one 
time  these  animals  appeared  in  great  numbers  along  the  Mus- 
kingum,  but  as  soon  as  the  country  begins  to  be  inhabited  by  the 
Indians,  they  retire  and  are  now  only  to  be  found  near  the  mouth 
of  the  above  named  river.  Along  the  banks  of  the  Scioto  and 
further  south,  both  Indians  and  whites  say  that  they  may  be 
seen  in  herds  numbering  hundreds.  That  is  two  or  three  hun 
dred  miles  from  here.  If  a  buffalo  cow  is  shot,  its  calf,  if  such 
it  has,  will  stand  quietly  by  until  the  huntsman  has  skinned  its 
dam  and  then  follow  him  into  his  hut,  stay  at  his  fire  and  not 
leave  him.  That  this  is  true,  I  have  living  witnesses  enough 
about  me  to  testify. 

The  panther152  has  a  head  and  face  like  a  cat,  its  legs  are 
short  and  the  paws  are  armed  with  sharp  claws.  It  is  a  beast 
of  prey  of  uncommon  strength.  Its  tail  is  long,  compared  with 


60  David  Zeisberger's  History 

that  of  the  cat.  Deer  it  is  able  to  catch  at  will.  If  it  spies  one 
and  is  desirous  of  capturing  it,  the  panther  crawls  along  the 
ground  behind  fallen  trees  or  through  the  thicket  until  it  is  sure 
of  capturing  the  deer  in  one  leap.  Then  it  springs  upon  its 
prey,  seizes  it  with  its  claws  and  does  not  release  its  hold  until 
the  victim  is  dead.  If  it  misses  its  aim  at  the  first  spring,  it 
never  attempts  a  second.  When  the  deer  has  been  killed,  the 
panther  devours  but  a  small  part,  leaving  the  rest.  When  again 
pressed  by  hunger  it  seeks  new  game.  At  a  distance  of  ten 
yards  from  a  tree,  the  panther  can  leap  ten  yards  up  the  tree 
and  leap  the  same  distance  from  the  tree.  It  is  not  known  that 
a  panther  has  ever  done  the  Indians  injury  without  provocation. 
Should  an  Indian  get  near  the  place  where  the  young  are  kept, 
then  he  is  in  great  danger  and  if  he  does  not  know  what  to  do 
under  such  circumstances,  is  almost  sure  to  lose  his  life.  He 
must  never  turn  his  back  upon  the  panther,  thinking  that  he 
can  escape.  He  must  not  take  his  eyes  off  the  animal,  and  if  he 
has  not  the  courage  to  shoot,  gently  walk  backward,  until  he 
is  a  good  distance  away.  If  he  shoots  and  misses,  then  he  is  in 
imminent  danger  and  must  keep  his  eyes  fixed  on  the  panther.  It 
has  happened  that  in  this  way  Indians  have  saved  their  lives. 
It  has  occurred  that  a  bear  has  fought  so  long  with  a  panther, 
near  to  where  the  latter  had  its  young,  that  both  fell  dead.  The 
skin  of  the  panther  is  gray  in  color,  mixed  with  reddish  hair. 
Wrild  cats,  gray  in  color,  are  distinguished  from  the  do 
mestic  cats  in  that  they  have  hardly  any  tail.153  They  are  beasts 
®f  prey,  even  invade  the  hunting  lodges  of  the  Indians,  when 
the  latter  are  out  and  if  they  find  meat  devour  it. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  fox,  red,154  gray155  and  black.156 
The  raccoon157  is  somewhat  larger  than  a  common  cat  and 
has  a  pointed  snout.  Its  forefeet  bear  some  resemblance  to  hands 
and  are  used  as  such,  for  it  digs  up  small  mussels  out  of  the 
sand,  which  form  its  food  when  there  are  no  acorns  or  chest 
nuts  to  be  had.  Its  hind  legs  resemble  those  of  the  bear.  It  is 
fattest  in  autumn  and  winter,  when  it  lives  in  hollow  logs  like  a 
bear,  without  seeking  food.  They  do  not  hibernate  as  long  as 
do  the  bears.  In  a  severe  winter  it  retires  for  two  whole  months, 


North  American  Indians.  61 

otherwise,  only  four  weeks.     The  flesh  is  wholesome  and  tastes 
like  bears'  meat  and  its  skin  is  useful  to  hatters. 

The  otter158  can  live  on  land  or  in  water.  It  often  travels 
a  considerable  distance  across  the  country  from  one  creek  or 
river  to  another. 

The  beaver159  was  formerly  found  in  great  numbers  in  this 
region,  but  since  the  Indians  have  learned  from  the  whites  to 
catch  them  in  steel-traps,100  they  are  more  rarely  found.    A  neces 
sary  thing  in  connection  with  the  beaver-catch  is  a  certain  oil 
or  spirit  which  the  Indians  prepare  of  various  kinds  of  bark  of 
trees  and  other  aromatic  things,  which  they  place  in  the  traps 
to  decoy  the  beavers  into  them.     The  skins  are  always  of  con 
siderable  value.     They  are  very  industrious  animals  and  for  their 
size,  of  uncommon  strength.     Beaver  dams  of  such  dimensions 
are  found  in  creeks,  that  it  might  be  imagined  that  they  had  been 
built  by  human  hands.     Such  dams  they  build  when  there  are 
many  together,  for  they  work  harmoniously,  at  night,  in  order  to 
dam  up  the  water  and  often  put  a  considerable  piece  of  land 
under  water  in  course  of  their  operations.     In  the  middle  of  the 
dam  they  build  their  dwelling  places  that  are  raised  above  the 
water,  wood  and  earth  being  the  materials  used.     As  their  dens 
are  in  the  middle  of  the  lakes  they  cannot  be  easily   reached. 
In  the  front  part  of  the  mouth  they  have  four  quite  broad  and 
very  sharp  teeth,  two  above  and  two  below.     With  these  they 
are  able  to  gnaw  through  trees  that  are  nearly  a  foot  in  diam 
eter.     When  the  tree  is  down  they  divide  it  into  pieces  of  such 
size  that  they  are  able  to  manage  them.     These  pieces  carried 
into  the  water,  they  join  together  in  such  fashion  that  the  water 
cannot  tear  them  apart.     I   have  myself  seen  in  quite  a  large 
creek   a   beaver    dam,   in   which   the   beavers   were  still   undis 
turbed  at  home,  so  that  I  could  observe  their  habits  and  work. 
The   dam,   extending   straight   across   the   creek,   reached   three 
feet  above  the  water,  so  that  it  was  possible  to  cross  the  creek 
dry  shod,  and  put  several  acres  of  land  under  water.    In  another 
place,  where  the  water  had  threatened  to  take  another  course, 
they  had  been  obliged  to  build  another  dam,  made  of  earth  and 
branches  of  trees.     Had  this  dam  not  been  so  far  from  human 
habitation,  one  might  have  thought  that  it  had  been  constructed 


62  David  Zeisberger's  History 

by  men.  The  animals  are  of  a  dark  brown  color,  have  short  legs 
and  broad  feet,  adapted  to  swimming  and  armed  with  short 
claws.  The  tail  is  broad  and  flat.  At  the  end  it  is  broadest, 
smooth,  without  any  hair,  and  looks  as  though  covered  with 
fish  scales.  The  tail  furnshes  the  best  flesh  and  is  much  liked 
by  the  Indians.  It  has  an  appearance  different  from  the  rest 
of  the  animal's  flesh,  being  more  like  fish  meat.  As  the  skins 
always  bring  a  good  price,  the  Indians  hunt  these  animals  con 
stantly. 

The  opossum  is  about  as  large  as  a  small  dog,  of  grayish 
white  color  and  carnivorous.'01  If  it  finds  a  dead  deer,  it  strikes 
into  the  carcass,  lives  there  and  devours  it  gradually.  It  climbs 
the  trees  and  sleeps  hanging  to  a  branch  by  its  tail,162  which 
is  bare  of  hair  and  quite  round.  Should  one  approach  it  un 
awares,  it  never  attempts  to  escape  but  lies  down  as  dead  and 
makes  no  motion,  though  handled  and  turned.  If  one  leaves 
it,  the  animal  watches  and  creeps  off  slyly  as  soon  as  the  enemy 
has  retired  some  distance.  It  is  not  able  to  run  swiftly.  The 
female  has  a  bag  under  her  belly,  in  which  she  carries  her 
young  until  they  are  too  large  for  this  receptacle,  when  they 
follow  the  mother.  If  she  meets  with  a  fallen  tree  in  her  passage, 
she  either  walks  around  or  lifts  her  young,  one  by  one,  over  the 
trunk  and  then  proceeds  on  her  journey.  The  flesh  of  the  crea 
ture  tastes  like  pork  and  is  eaten  by  the  English,  rarely  by  the 
Indians. 

The  pole-cat163  has  white  and  black  markings,  a  gentle  and 
mild  countenance.  It  goes  out  of  the  way  for  no  one,  and  who 
ever  approaches  too  near  is  ill  rewarded  for  his  curiosity.  It 
has  a  special  gland  containing  a  fluid  intolerably  foetid.  If 
one  approaches  too  closely,  the  fluid  is  discharged  and  thrown 
in  all  directions  with  the  tail.  The  offensive  odor  no  one  can 
bear  and  one  is  ready  enough  to  get  away.  If  one's  person  or 
clothes  has  been  infected  by  the  moisture,  it  is  necessary  to  bathe 
and  change  before  returning  into  company.  Even  dogs,  when 
they  kill  the  animal,  find  the  stench  unbearable.  Yet  the  flesh 
of  the  creature  is  eaten  by  the  Indians.  It  is  said  to  be  very 
good  and  not  to  have  any  offensive  odor. 


North  American  Indians.  63 

The  porcupine164  is  not  found  along  the  Muskingum,  seldom 
seen  along  the  Ohio  to  the  north,  but  frequently  in  the  country 
of  the  Mingoes.  The  Indians  eat  its  flesh,  which  tastes  like 
pork,  with  great  relish.  It  climbs  the  trees  nimbly  and  has  its 
home  in  hollow  trees.  The  body  is  heavier  than  that  of  the  fox. 
On  the  back  the  animal  has  whitish-brown  quills,  the  length  of 
a  finger.  These  the  squaws,  particularly  among  the  Mingoes, 
color  red  and  use  as  needles  to  ornament  their  moccasins,  pouches, 
in  which  tobacco  and  pipes  are  carried,  and  other  things.  As 
it  cannot  run  swiftly,  when  anyone  approaches,  the  animal  turns 
its  back,  which  is  full  of  quills,  toward  the  enemy,  unless  it  is 
possible  to  get  up  a  tree.  Hence,  they  are  easily  killed.  Dogs 
that  attack  the  creature,  suffer  terribly  and  usually  die,  unless 
all  the  quills  they  have  gotten  into  their  bodies  are  removed, 
which  is  not  easily  accomplished,  as  many  of  them  break  off. 

There  is  a  small  animal  in  the  Mingoe  country,  called  the 
marten,165  concerning  which  I  have  been  told  that  it  probably  be 
longs  to  the  sable  tribe.  Though  but  small  animals,  their  skins 
are  of  great  value.  The  Indians  catch  them  in  wooden  traps, 
using  meat  as  a  bait.  The  skins  are  sold  to  the  whites. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  moose166  that  are  to  be 
found  further  north,  of  which  I  have  seen  nothing  but  the  horns. 
The  latter  differ  from  those  of  the  elk  in  that  the  prongs  are 
broad  and  round.  The  Indians  declare  that  these  are  equal  in 
size  to  a  horse.  They  have  cloven  hoofs  and  nostrils  large 
enough  to  put  a  hand  in.  As  I  have  no  certain  knowledge  of 
these  animals  and  have  never  even  in  Europe  seen  any  nor  have 
ever  had  a  satisfactory  description,  I  will  not  definitely  declare 
that  these  are  the  animals  they  speak  of,  though  I  should  be  at 
a  loss  to  know  what  other  animals  they  refer  to. 

The  muskrat,167  able  to  live  in  or  out  of  the  water,  is  in 
many  respects  most  like  the  beaver.  Its  tail  is  not  broad  as 
that  of  the  beaver,  but  oval-shaped.  Their  dwellings  are  in  the 
water,  but  so  arranged  that  they  can,  according  to  inclination, 
be  in  the  water  or  in  a  dry  place.  A  great  quantity  of  odorous 
matter  is  found  in  the  body  of  this  animal.  The  odor  is  un 
pleasant  when  too  strong,  but  a  little  of  it  is  agreeable.  In  the 


64  David  Zeisberger's  History 

settlements  of  the  white  people  the  muskrat  does  much  damage 
to  mill-dams  by  its  burrowing. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  squirrels,  the  black,168  the  grey,168 
and  the  red.  The  black  are  most  commonly  found,  the  grey 
are  the  largest  and  the  red  the  smallest  in  size.  Their  flesh  is 
tender,  and  eaten  by  the  Indians  in  case  of  sickness  or  when 
they  are  very  hungry  for  meat. 

The  ground  squirrel170  lives  under  the  ground  and  is  some 
what  smaller  than  a  common  rat.  They  do  great  damage  in 
the  fields  of  the  Indians,  not  only  digging  out  the  corn  when 
it  has  been  planted,  but  also  pumpkin  and  melon  seed.  When 
the  Indian  corn  is  ripe,  they  lay  in  good  stores  of  it  for  the 
winter.  They  stuff  their  cheeks  full  of  it  and  then  carry  it  to 
their  storehouses. 

The  groundhog171  also  has  its  dwelling  under  ground.  It 
is  about  the  size  of  a  large  domestic  cat,  though  heavier.  It 
lives  on  grass  and  is,  also,  very  fond  of  melons  and  pumpkins. 
It  chews  the  cud.172  Its  feet  are  armed  with  claws.  When 
pursued  and  unable  to  reach  its  hole,  the  animal  will  climb  a 
tree.  The  flesh  is  toothsome  and  eaten  by  the  Indians. 

There  is,  also,  a  very  large  variety  of  wild  cat,173  other 
than  the  kind  already  mentioned.  This  is  as  large  as  a  dog.  It 
is  very  savage,  even  attacking  a  deer  and  killing  it. 

The  hare174  in  these  parts  is  small  and  not  found  in  large 
numbers,  being  pursued  by  birds  and  beasts  of  prey.  Towards 
the  north  I  have  seen  them  of  the  same  size  as  those  in  Europe. 
In  that  region  some  are  found  with  a  snow  white  fur.175  They 
dwell  in  hollow  trees. 

White  deer  are  seldom  seen  in  these  parts.176  These  have 
generally  in  summer  some  red  and  in  winter  some  gray  spots. 
The  Indians  call  a  white  deer  the  king  of  the  deer  and  believe 
that  the  rest  flock  about  and  follow  him.177 

Wolves  are  very  numerous,  most  are  gray,  some  are  almost 
black.  As  their  skins  serve  no  useful  purpose  and  are  not  much 
valued,  the  Indians  do  not  pursue  them,  unless  they  catch  them 
tearing  skins  or  devouring  meat  they  have  carefully  laid  away. 
Sometimes  the  wolves  break  into  their  hunting  huts  and  do  much 
damage.  They  rarely  attack  men,  never  when  there  are  deer 


North  American  Indians.  65 

to  pursue.  The  latter  they  attack  in  summer  or  winter,  never 
stopping  pursuit  until  a  victim  has  been  captured.  Occasionally 
the  deer  save  themselves  in  creeks  and  rivers,  swimming  a  great 
distance  down  stream,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  wolves  to 
trace  them.  When  a  wolf  has  caught  a  deer  and  killed  it,  it 
will  not  at  once  consume  the  flesh,  but  go  to  the  highest  hill 
nearby  and  call  its  comrades,  by  howling.  When  these  have 
assembled  they  devour  the  deer  together. 

Wild  geese178  appear  here  in  spring  and  autumn.  Some 
remain  during  the  winter,  others  during  the  summer,  the  latter 
hatching  their  young  in  this  region.  Most  of  them  remain  long 
in  this  country,  passing  toward  winter  into  a  warmer  latitude, 
toward  summer  to  the  north,  where  they  build  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  return  in  autumn  with  their  young. 

Wild  ducks  are  birds  of  passage  like  the  geese,  but  there 
are  some  varieties  that  stay  during  the  summer  season.  One 
kind,  called  the  tree  duck,  builds  its  nest  in  hollow  trees,  either 
hanging  over  the  water  or  near  to  it.179  When  the  young  are 
hatched,  they  are  thrown  into  the  water  and  taken  elsewhere. 
The  male  bird  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  water-fowls  and  very 
good  to  eat. 

Another  variety,  that  also  has  its  nest  here,  is  the  shel 
drake.180  This  has  a  narrow  bill,  armed  with  teeth.  They  live 
on  fish,  their  flesh  having  the  taste  of  fish.  Indians  rarely  use 
them  for  food,  though  the  flesh  of  some  is  very  palatable.181 

The  crane  is  the  largest  of  the  birds  of  these  parts.182  Stand 
ing  on  its  long  legs  and  stretching  its  neck  upwards,  it  is  as 
tall  as  a  man.  Its  body  is  proportionately  heavy.  When  hit  by 
a  shot  and  only  wounded,  it  attacks  its  pursuer  and  has  great 
power  in  striking  with  its  wings.  It  is  gray  in  color,  has  a 
sharply  pointed  bill  and  its  feet  are  formed  like  those  of  the 
turkey.  This  bird  is  commonly  found  upon  large  plains  or  near 
to  rivers.  Their  flesh  is  dark,  rather  tough  and  seldom  eaten 
by  the  Indians.  Their  trumpeting  may  be  heard  a  considerable 
distance. 

Wild  swans183  are  quite  like  the  domestic  birds,  I  have  seen 
in  Holland,  quite  white  and  of  the  same  size.  The  Indians 
5 


66  Daiid  Zeisberyers  History 

declare  that  their  flesh  tastes  like  that  of  the  hear,  of  which 
they  are  particularly  fond,  and  is  often  so  fat  that  pieces  may 
be  cut  from  the  flesh. 

Wild  turkeys184  may  be  seen  in  the  fall  in  flocks  numbering 
hundreds.  In  the  summer  they  disperse  in  the  woods,  this  being 
the  time  for  hatching  the  young.  In  winter  their  plumage  is  of 
a  shining  black,  with  white  spots  on  the  wings ;  in  summer  it 
changes  to  a  light  brown.  When  the  time  comes  for  laying 
the  eggs,  the  Indians  seek  them,  as  they  are  very  fond  of  them. 

Pheasants  are  not  valued  by  the  Indians,  though  their  flesh 
is  palatable.185  They  fall  victims,  however,  to  birds  of  prey. 
Were  it  not  for  the  birds  of  prey  the  woods  would  swarm  with 
them,  for  the  hen  lays  above  twenty  eggs  at  one  time. 

Heath-grouse,  found  here  also,  are  a  little  larger  than  the 
pheasants.186  They  are  not  valued  by  the  Indians  any  more  than 
the  pheasants.  In  the  winter  the  latter  shelter  themselves  from 
the  birds  by  plunging,  when  pursued,  into  the  snow,  often  run 
ning  a  considerable  distance  from  one  place  to  another  under 
the  snow,  thus  escaping  their  foes. 

The  wild  pigeon187  is  of  an  ash-gray  color,  the  male  being 
distinguished  by  a  red  breast.  In  some  years  in  fall,  or  even  in 
spring,  they  flock  together  in  such  numbers  that  the  air  is 
darkened  by  their  flight.  Three  years  ago  they  appeared  in  such 
great  numbers  that  the  ground  under  their  roosting-place  was 
covered  with  their  dung  above  a  foot  high,  during  one  night. 
The  Indians  went  out,  killed  them  with  sticks  and  came  home 
loaded.  At  such  a  time  the  noise  the  pigeons  make  is  such  that 
it  is  difficult  for  people  near  them  to  hear  or  understand  each 
other.  They  do  not  always  gather  in  such  numbers  in  one 
place,  often  scattering  over  the  great  forests. 

The  turtle-doves  are  smaller  than  the  pigeons  and  are 
always  found  in  pairs.188 

Partridges  are  small,  neatly  formed  birds.189  In  the  fall 
and  winter  they  fly  in  broods.  In  the  settlements  they  like  to 
remain  near  the  plantations,  as  they  find  the  food  they  like  in 
the  fields.  The  flesh  is  tender  and  of  a  fine  flavor.  They  are 
favorites  with  all  people,  being  innocent  and  harmless  birds. 


North  American  Indians.  67 

The  eagle  has  a  white  head  and  tail.190  The  wings  are 
black  and  the  body  partly  black  and  partly  ash-colored.  It 
builds  its  nest  usually  in  the  fork  of  some  lofty  and  thick  tree. 
It  lays  the  foundation  with  a  great  quantity  of  branches  and 
repairs  the  nest  built  there  every  spring.  Usually,  they  hatch 
but  one,  at  most  two,  in  a  year.  It  is  unquestionably  the  strong 
est  among  the  birds  of  prey.  I  have  seen  it  fight  with  another 
bird  of  prey,101  much  larger  than  itself  and  that  wished  to  occupy 
its  nest.  Lifting  the  other  bird  into  the  air,  the  eagle  hurled  it 
down,  after  having  severely  injured  it.  Every  morning  the  eagle 
goes  out  in  search  of  prey  and  brings  to  its  young,  birds,  squir 
rels,  snakes  and  fish.  Fish  now  and  then  prove  destructive  to 
them,  for  in  attacking  large  fish,  the  bird  sometimes  cannot  dis 
engage  its  talons  soon  enough,  but  is  drawn  down  into  the  water 
and  drowned. 

There  is  another  species  of  eagle  that  I  have  seen  nowhere 
but  in  this  region.  The  Indians  call  it  Chauwalanne,  forked 
eagle,192  from  the  fact  that  its  tail  is  forked.  It  often  soars  to 
such  a  height  that  the  eye  cannot  reach  it.  If  it  approaches  the 
dwellings  of  the  Indians,  they  always  look  upon  it  as  a  sign  of 
change  of  weather  or  rain.  Often  the  change  follows  such 
approach.  It  feeds  upon  snakes  and  other  creatures,  as  does 
the  white-headed  eagle,  but  it  is  as  a  rule,  continually  on  the 
wing  during  its  repast.  It  builds  its  nest  in  high  trees,  but  in 
as  concealed  a  place  as  can  be  found. 

Of  other  birds  of  prey,  there  are  to  be  found  here  the 
hawk,193  the  stone-falcon,194  that  remains  near  the  rocks,  the 
pigeon-hawk,195  that  pursues  not  only  the  pigeon  but  all  other 
birds  it  can  conquer,  though  it  is  a  small  bird  and  not  as  large  as 
the  pigeon. 

The  wood-pecker  has  a  light  red  head  with  a  red  plume 
and  is  otherwise  black  with  white  spots.196  It  finds  its  food  in 
old  trees,  this  consisting  of  worms  that  are  to  be  found  in  the 
wood. 

One  variety  is  called  the  Red-headed  Wood-pecker,197  be<- 
cause  of  the  red  head,  is  a  nuisance  in  orchards,  because  it  at 
tacks  the  apples. 


68  David  Zeisberger's  History 

Another  variety  of  wood-pecker  is  very  small,  is  spotted 
and  is  much  pursued  by  birds  of  prey,  especially  the  hawk. 
Occasionally,  the  wood-pecker  is  able  to  defend  himself  against 
his  enemies,  it  having  happened  that  this  bird  when  attacked, 
has  thrust  its  bill  into  the  head  of  the  pursuer  so  that  the  latter 
fell  dead. 

The  yellow  wood-pecker,108  so  called  because  of  its  yellow 
wings,  also  climbs  up  and  down  the  trees  in  search  of  food, 
with  its  head  turned  upward  or  downward. 

A  few  green  parrots199  are  seen  in  the  woods  here  in  sum 
mer.  Further  south  they  may  be  found  in  great  numbers. 

The  loon200  is  a  water  bird  about  the  size  of  a  goose  and  is 
heavily  feathered.  It  is  spotted  black  and  white,  lives  on  fish 
and  has  a  pointed  bill.  It  cannot  walk  on  land,  as  its  feet  are 
too  far  back,  but  is  a  strong  swimmer.  It  can  swim  a  consid 
erable  distance  under  the  water,  before  rising  to  the  surface, 
especially  if  it  is  being  fired  upon.  Often  the  Indians  are 
obliged  to  shoot  a  number  of  times  before  they  hit  the  bird,  for 
it  is  noted  for  its  swiftness  in  diving,  as  well  as  for  its  swim 
ming.  It  is  not  eatable,  but  the  Indians  make  pouches  of  its 
skin,  which  is  taken  off  whole,  large  enough  to  hold  pipe,  to 
bacco,  flint,  steel  and  knife. 

There  are  two  other  birds  of  prey  among  those  that  fish, 
the  one  larger  than  the  eagle201  the  other  a  small  bird202  that 
makes  its  nest  on  the  ground  along  steep  banks  of  creeks  or 
rivers,  where  it  makes  a  hole  just  large  enough  to  slip  into. 

The  heron203  has  long  legs,  great  wings  and  a  lean  body. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  owls.  The  larger204  is  heard  very 
much  in  the  woods  at  night. 

Crows205  do  much  damage  on  the  plantations,  especially  in 
the  cornfields,  both  when  the  corn  is  planted  and  when  it  is  ripe. 

The  Turkey  Posser206  has  a  head  like  a  turkey,  without 
feathers.  It  lives  on  carrion.  The  raven207  is  also  a  scavenger 
and  at  the  same  time  a  bird  of  prey,  often  attacking  chickens. 
The  raven  makes  good  use  of  the  meat  that  Indians  leave  in  the 
woods. 

The  hoopoe208  is  fawn  colored  on  the  back  and  has  a  brown- 


North  American  Indians.  69 

ish  breast.  It  has  a  plume  of  feathers  on  its  head  and  is  to  be 
found  along  creeks  and  rivers  where  it  finds  its  food. 

The  black-bird209  has  a  reddish  breast  and  its  wings  and 
back  are  ash-colored.  Its  song  may  be  heard  in  wild  regions 
and  deserts. 

The  blue-bird210  has  a  reddish  breast  also,  otherwise  its 
color  is  a  beautiful  azure.  It  makes  its  appearance  in  spring 
before  any  other  bird. 

The  mocking-bird211  mimics  what  it  hears  and  imitates  other 
birds. 

A  certain  yellow212  bird  with  black  wings  is  to  be  found 
everywhere  in  great  numbers.  Its  song  is  very  agreeable. 

There  is  another  kind,213  orange  in  color  with  black  spots. 
This  bird  hangs  its  nest,  made  of  wild  hemp  or  flax,  on  the 
branches  of  trees.  At  one  side  of  the  nest  there  is  a  little  open 
ing  at  which  the  bird  goes  in  and  out. 

Another  kind  of  birds,214  light-red  in  color,  is  particularly 
beautiful,  as  is  another  red  bird215  with  black  wings.  Both  kinds 
I  have  seen  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 

Starlings216  are  quite  black  and  found  here  in  great  num 
bers.  They  do  much  damage  on  the  plantations. 

The  cat-bird217  is  so  called  because  its  note  is  like  the  mew 
ing  of  a  cat. 

Finches,218  torn-tits,219  wrens,220  are  found  in  great  num 
bers. 

The  smallest  of  the  birds  of  this  region  is  the  honey-bird,221 
Without  perching  on  the  flowers,  it  sucks  the  honey  out  of  them. 
In  its  swift  flight  it  makes  the  air  buzz  and  hum  with  its  wings. 

Serpents  are  so  numerous  that  it  is  remarkable  that  Indians 
who  spend  much  of  their  time  in  the  forests  are  not  bitten  oftener. 
In  stony  places  or  mountains  they  are  found  most  frequently. 
The  winter  they  spend  underground  or  in  crevices  of  the  rocks. 
In  places  where  they  are  numerous,  they  gather  in  the  fall  and  lie 
upon  one  another  and  twisted  together  until  spring.  Should 
they  be  discovered  in  winter  they  have  to  all  appearances  but 
little  life,  being  able  to  move,  but  not  having  strength  enough 
to  crawl  away. 


70  David  Zeisbergcr's  History 

(i)  Among  the  most  dangerous  reptiles  are  the  rattle 
snakes.22'  They  are  yellow  in  color,  marked  with  black  spots. 
The  largest  are  about  four  feet  long,  sometimes  more,  and  about 
as  thick  as  an  arm.  The  rattles  are  at  the  end  of  their  tails, 
and  often  betray  the  snakes  when  they  are  not  seen.  These  rat 
tles  appear  to  be  a  thin,  transparent  horny  substance,  arranged 
in  links.  From  the  number  of  links  it  is  possible  to  tell  the 
age  of  the  serpent,  one  being  added  every  year.  It  is  a  rare 
thing  to  find  one  with  twenty  rattles.  When  the  rattling  sound 
is  heard,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  serpent  is  angry,  the  trembling 
of  the  tail  causing  the  rattling.  Even  when  they  glide  along 
the  rattles  make  a  slight  sound  which  can,  however,  be  detected 
only  by  those  well  acquainted  with  the  ways  of  the  snake.  They 
do  not  rattle  unless  something  approaches  them.  Head  and 
mouth  are  rather  broad  in  proportion  to  the  size.  On  either 
side  of  the  mouth  they  have  two  very  sharp  teeth,  which  lie 
concealed  in  a  skin  sack  until  they  want  to  bite,  when  they  are 
able  to  move  these  forward  with  great  swiftness.  Hence,  it  is 
that  when  anyone  has  been  bitten  four  little  openings  close 
together  may  be  seen  in  the  skin.  If  a  rattlesnake  has  been 
killed,  which  often  happens,  as  they  do  not  seek  to  escape  nor 
go  out  of  the  way  for  any  one,  and  one  draws  forward  the 
teeth  with  a  little  stick,  a  clear  liquid  spurts  out  of  the  bag  lying 
at  the  root  of  the  teeth.  This  is  the  poisonous  juice.  Un 
doubtedly,  the  teeth  in  themselves  are  also  poisonous.  Indians 
who  have  been  bitten,  even  if  they  happen  to  be  quite  alone  in 
the  forest,  know  what  to  do.  They  seek  certain  herbs  and  roots 
that  may  be  found  anywhere  and  cure  themselves  of  the  bite, 
so  that  one  rarely  hears  of  death  occasioned  by  the  bite  of  this 
serpent.  Horses  or  cattle  bitten  in  the  woods,  where  it  is  not 
possible  to  render  immediate  assistance,  die  in  a  short  time. 
With  proper  management  these  animals  may  recover  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  With  human  beings  a  cure  is  not  effected  so 
quickly,  and  a  curious  thing  is  that  the  part  where  a  human 
being  has  been  bitten,  becomes  spotted  like  the  rattlesnake.  The 
fat  of  the  rattlesnake  is  used  by  apothecaries.  Here  along  the 
Muskingum  rattlesnakes  are  not  as  numerous  as  in  some  regions 
that  are  stony  or  mountainous.  Along  the  Susquehanna  there 


North  American  Indians.  71 

are  very  many,  especially  along  the  West  Branch  up  in  the 
mountains.  In  that  country  in  the  spring  of  the  year  when  the 
snakes  come  out  of  their  holes  they  have  been  seen  in  such  num 
bers  in  certain  places  that  it  would  have  been  possible  to  load 
up  several  wagons  with  them,  the  air  being  infected  with  an 
intolerable  stench.  This  was  seen  to  be  the  case  by  Indians  who 
were  coming  down  the  West  Branch.  At  the  time  many  of  the 
reptiles  had  already  crawled  up  the  mountains,  which  were  very 
steep.  As  there  were  many  fallen  leaves  about,  they  set  fire 
to  them  and  the  trees  with  the  result  that  many  of  the  snakes 
rolled  down  the  mountains  and  were  burned.  When  I  passed 
through  that  region  the  first  time,  which  was  in  June,  I  did, 
indeed,  see  unusually  many  rattlesnakes,  but  I  could  hardly 
have  believed  that  there  would  be  as  many  as  the  above  incident 
would  indicate.  The  second  time,  however,  when  my  travels 
took  me  through  that  country,  which  happened  in  July,  my  com 
panion  and  I  had  quite  a  different  experience.  Xot  only  did 
we  see  them  singly  and  in  smaller  numbers  along  the  wayside, 
but  in  stony  places  so  many  around  that  when  we  began  to  kill 
them  there  was  rattling  all  about  to  such  a  degree  that  we  held 
it  advisable  to  get  out  of  that  region  as  soon  as  possible.  After 
this  I  could  believe  what  I  had  heard,  for  in  the  fall,  when  they 
gather  at  different  places,  there  must  be  immense  number  of  them. 

2)  Copperheads,223  named  from  the  color  of  the  reptiles. 
Their  bite  is  as  venomous  as  that  of  rattlesnakes. 

3)  Vipers224  have  a  flat  head,  are  short  and  thick,  black 
on  the  back  and  gray  on  the  belly.     \Vhen  approached,  they  dis 
tend  the  head  and  hiss  so  that  it  is  possible  to  hear  them  at  quite 
a  distance.     Their  bite  also  is  venomous. 

4)  One  variety225  of  snake  found  here  I  have  met  with  in 
no  other  region.     The  belly  is  quite  red.     These  serpents  may 
be  found  in  the  water  and  on  land.     They  get  to  be  from  five 
to  six  feet  in  length  and  their  bite  is  poisonous.     To  cure  the 
bite  of  this  reptile  the  Indians  use  a  plant  that  grows  in  the 
water.     These  snakes  have   teeth   all  around  the  mouth,  above 
and  below,  but  no  fangs. 

5)  Hornsnakes226  are  in  color  and  size  like  the  copperheads, 
except  that  they  have  a  sharply  pointed  horn  on  the  tail.     They 


72  David  Zeisberger's  History 

are   as   venomous   as   the   copperheads   and   like   them,   only   of 
middle  size. 

6)  There  is  another  kind227  of  blacksnake  which  gets  to  be 
about  six   feet  long,  but  it  is  slender  and  able  to  move  more 
swiftly.    These  climb  trees  and  despoil  nests  of  the  young  birds. 
The  bite  of  the  reptile  causes  a  slight  swelling,  but  has  no  other 
evil  effects. 

7)  Water  snakes228  spend  much  of  their  time  in  the  water, 
live  on  fish  and  are  not  poisonous. 

8)  A   kind   of   striped,   brightly   marked   snakes,229   which 
are  small  and  harmless. 

9)  There  are  green  snakes,280  white-bellied,  not  more  than 
a  foot  in  length  and  harmless. 

I  have  myself  seen  a  hawk  descend  on  a  blacksnake,  of  the 
kind  described  under  number  6,  and  attack  it,  but  the  snake 
quickly  coiled  itself  round  the  bird  and  killed  it. 

Concerning  none  of  the  reptiles  described  above,  beyond 
the  rattlesnake,  is  it  known  that  they  gather  in  great  numbers 
at  any  time.  None  are  so  numerously  represented  as  the  rattle 
snakes.  All  of  them  swallow  their  prey  whole.  Frogs, 
turtles,  birds,  groundhogs,  squirrels,  they  swallow  thus,  but 
by  slow  degrees.  They  usually  begin  with  the  hind  leg  of 
an  animal  and  gradually  draw  it  in.  All  serpents  cast 
their  coat  in  spring.  Often  the  whole  skin  of  a  snake,  com 
plete  from  the  head  downward,  may  be  seen  lying  on  the  ground. 
This  is  very  thin.  The  new  skin  of  a  black  serpent  is  a  shining 
jet.  It  is  said  that  a  rattlesnake,  if  irritated,  and  unable  to 
avenge  itself,  will  sink  its  fangs  into  its  own  body,  with  the 
result  that  it  swells  considerably  and  dies  in  a  few  hours.  This 
snake  is  said  to  possess  another  peculiar  property,  as  witnessed 
both  by  Indians  and  whites,  viz.,  that  of  gazing  with  fixed  eyes 
upon  bird  or  squirrel  and  by  a  kind  of  fascination,  stupefying 
them  in  such  a  manner  that  the  poor  creatures  drop  from  the 
boughs  and  fall  easy  prey  to  their  enemy. 

Lizards  are  but  rarely  found  here.  One  variety,  not  above 
five  or  six  inches  in  length,  is  said  to  be  poisonous.  Indians 
make  much  ado  when  they  see  them  and  try  to  frighten  them 
away.  They  dwell  in  hollow  trees,  where  they  also  keep  their 


North  American  Indians.  73 

young.     Other  varieties,   some  very   small,   come   into  the   huts 
that  are  reared  in  the  forests  and  are  very  harmless. 

Of  fishes,  there  are  doubtless  many  more  varieties  than 
those  I  have  seen  in  the  Ohio.  I  will,  however,  confine  notice 
to  those  I  have  seen  and  know. 

1 )  Pike231  are  of  uncommon  size  and  generally  known. 

2)  The  black-fish,232  as  the  Indians  call  it,  has  large,  brown 
scales,  a  small  head  and  a  small,  round,  soft  mouth,  not  armed 
with  teeth.     Its  shape  is  not  broad,  but  round.     It  is  reckoned 
one  of  the  best  flavored. 

3)  The  buffalo-fish23^  is  thus  called  by  Indians  and  Euro 
peans  because  of  its   being  heard   sometimes   to  bellow   in   the 
water.     Its  length  is  about  a  foot  and  a  half  or  even  two  feet, 
and  its  breadth  five  or  six  inches.     It  has  a  curved  back,  prickly 
fins,  a   narrow  mouth,   and   a   small  head,  in   which  two   white 
stones23*  are  found,  flat  on  one  side  and  a  little  convex  on  the 
other.     These  are  not  ordinary  stones,  but  have  a  stony  appear 
ance.     The  fish  has  no  teeth,  but  at  the  entrance  of  its  throat 
there  are  two  strong  flat  bones,  with  grooves  exactly  fitting  each 
other.     With  these  it  can  crack  the  hardest  mussels,  which  are 
its  chief  food,  and  serve  to  bait  the  hook  in  angling  for  it.    The 
Indians,  however,  rarely  using  a  hook  and  line,  commonly  pierce 
this  fish  with  an  iron  prong  of  their  own  making.     If  any  one 
should  venture  to  put  his  finger  into  its  mouth,  even  when  to 
appearance  it  is  half  dead,  he  is  in  danger  of  losing  one  or  more  of 
his  fingers,  for  the  mussel  shells  which  the  fish  constantly  cracks, 
are  very  hard. 

4)  The  catfish235  is  without  scales  and  a  good  fish  to  eat. 
In   the   Muskingum  there  are  no  very  large  specimens  of  this 
fish.     In  the  Ohio,  on  the  other  hand,  they  grow  to  an  unusual 
size.     In  Pittsburg,  a  man  who  had  gone  fishing  at  night,  hav 
ing  bound  the  line  to  his  arm  and  gone  to  sleep  in  his  canoe, 
was  dragged  into  the  water  by  the  catfish  and  lost  his  life.    Man 
and  fish  were  found  close  together  several  days  later. 

5)  The  sturgeon230  is  the  largest  of  the  fish  in  the  Mus 
kingum.     The  largest  caught  here  were  from  three  to  three  and 
a  half  feet  in  length. 

6)  There  is  a  kind  of  fish237  with  a  narrowly  formed  mouth, 


74  David  Zeisberger's  History 

armed    with    sharp    teeth,  almost    like    the   bill    of    a   duck.      It 
has  scales.     The  Indians  do  not  use  it  for  food. 

7)  Another  kind238  resembles  the  catfish  very  much.    It  has 
no  scales.     This  also  has  a  broad,  plain  beak  like  the  bill  of  a 
goose,  almost  the  length  of  a  hand.    This  it  uses  to  dig  in  sand 
or  slime  in  search  of  food.     The  mouth  opens  below. 

8)  The  white  perch239  is  short  and  broad.     It  has  scales 
and  is  good  to  eat. 

9)  The  yellow  perch240  is  not  broad,  but  longer  than  the 
last  named,  has  prickly  fins  and  sharp  teeth  like  those  of  a  pike. 
It  has  a  yellowish  appearance  and  is  one  of  the  most  palatable 
of  fishes. 

10)  Eels  are  rarely  found.241 

11 )  There  is  an  other  variety  of  fish,242  or  whatever  one 
may  call   it,   resembling  a  small   catfish,   but  having  four  short 
legs.     It  has  a  wide  mouth  and  is  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
length.    The  fins  are  short. 

The  river  tortoise243  of  these  parts  is  a  species  different 
from  that  found  in  Pensilvanien,  which  has  a  hard  shell.  The 
shell  of  this  is  quite  soft  and  its  head  small  and  pointed,  like 
that  of  a  sea  tortoise.  The  Indians  shoot  them,  for  they  are 
not  easily  caught  in  any  other  way,  as  they  seldom  venture  out 
of  the  water  upon  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  Indians  are  very- 
fond  of  the  flesh  and  of  the  eggs,  which  the  animals  lay  in  the 
sand  on  islands. 

There  is  another  variety  of  land  tortoise244  in  these  parts 
which  has  a  hard  shell,  is  small  and  very  prettily  marked.  Flesh 
is  also  eaten. 

Two  varieties  of  shellfish245  are  found  as  well.  One  re 
sembles  the  clams  found  along  the  seacoast,  the  inside  of  the 
shell  being  violet,  shading  to  red ;  the  other  has  a  larger  shell, 
which  is  white  inside.  Some  speciments  of  smaller  varieties248 
are  also  found. 

Snails  are  likewise  found.  From  one  variety  spring,  it  is 
believed,  the  many  large  gad-flies,  which  in  the  summer,  in  the 
months  of  July  and  August,  worry  the  cattle  to  such  an  extent 
that  during  the  day  they  cannot  graze  in  the  forest.  During 
these  two  months  both  cattle  and  horses  make  for  shelter  every 


North  American  Indians.  75 

morning  as  soon  as  the  sun  begins  to  shine  and  return  to  the 
forest  only  at  sundown.  This  species  of  snail  deposits  a  color 
less  liquid  of  the  consistency  of  saliva  on  the  stems  of  various 
plants  in  the  forest  (presumably  containing  the  eggs  of  the 
animal,  which  are  hatched  out  by  the  sun).  From  this,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  pestiferous  gad-flies  are  hatched  out.247  Where 
there  are  large  herds  of  cattle  that  destroy  the  weeds  and  root 
them  up,  not  many  of  these  insects  are  found.248 

The  common  frogs  are  found  in  swamps  near  puddles  and 
ponds.  They  are  of  a  brownish  color,  do  not  croak,  but  have 
a  note  like  a  short  whistle.249  In  springtime  they  may  be  heard 
all  night.  The  Mingoes  catch  them  at  night  by  the  light  of  a 
torch  and  eat  them  either  fresh  or  dried.  Green  frogs  are  but 
rarely  met  with  and  only  in  rivers  and  brooks.250  The  largest 
American  frog  is  the  bull  frog.251  It  inhabits  rivers  and  large 
brooks.  Their  croaking  resembles  the  bellowing  of  a  bull,  but  is 
far  more  penetrating. 

Of  rats,  nothing  is  known  in  these  parts,  but  mice252  are 
very  common. 

Mosquitoes  and  sandflies  are  found  in  woods  in  summer 
time  in  great  numbers.  Both  sting  and  a  night  in  the  forest 
would  be  intolerable  without  the  smoke  of  a  fire.  They  are  par 
ticularly  annoying  in  changeable  weather.  Even  horses  will 
make  for  the  fire  and  stand  in  smoke  to  be  free  of  the  pests. 
Great  and  small  gadflies  come  in  July  and  August  and  trouble 
cattle  so  much  that  only  at  night  the  latter  will  graze,  the  gad 
flies  disappearing  until  dawn  of  day. 

Ticks  are  to  be  found  in  the  woods.  These  will  attack  one, 
pierce  the  skin  and  suck  the  blood  until  they  have  so  swelled  that 
they  drop  off.  Red-bugs  are  to  be  found  in  the  Indian  huts  at 
any  time  and  fleas  in  the  summer,  not  a  few. 

The  first  deer  a  boy  shoots  proves  the  occasion  of  a  great 
solemnity.  If  it  happens  to  be  a  buck  it  is  given  to  some  old 
man ;  if  a  doe,  to  some  old  woman.  These  bring  in  the  whole 
animal,  skinned,  if  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  If  the  animal  is  too 
heavy,  they"  bring  the  skin  and  as  much  of  the  flesh  as  they  can 
carry,  fetching  the  rest  later.  When  they  reach  the  village,  they 


76  David  Zcisberger's  History 

turn  to  the  east,  having  the  whole  or  part  of  the  animal  on  the 
back,  always  with  the  skin,  before  entering  the  house  and  give 
vent  to  a  prolonged  call,  which  is  the  old  man's  or  old  woman's 
prayer  to  the  Deity  in  behalf  of  the  boy,  that  he  may  always  be 
a  fortunate  hunter.  During  the  repast  they  repeat  their  peti 
tions  and  give  counsel  to  the  boy  (who,  with  his  companions,  is  a 
mere  spectator)  regarding  the  chase  and  all  the  circumstances 
of  his  future  life,  exhorting  him  above  all  things  to  revere  old 
age  and  gray  hairs  and  to  be  obedient  to  their  words,  because 
experience  has  given  them  wisdom.  Such  counsel  was  heeded 
in  time  past,  and  though  the  ceremonies,  are  still  kept  up,  the 
young  no  longer  revere  the  aged  as  was  the  case  at  one  time. 

Formerly,  the  young  revered  the  old,  especially  if  they  had 
gray  or  white  heads."53  They  believed  that  these  must  be  very 
wise  and  prudent,  because  they  were  of  such  an  age  and  seemed 
to  be  favored  of  the  gods.  Therefore,  they  treated  the  aged 
well,  brought  them,  it  may  be,  a  deer,  in  the  hope  that  they 
might  be  instructed  of  them  how  to  attain  to  equal  age.  They 
presented  the  old,  also,  with  wampum  or  belts,  with  the  same 
hope.  While  nothing  was  said,  the  aged  understood  and  gave 
the  desired  instruction  on  another  occasion. 

No  young  Indian  in  those  days  would  have  dared  to  take 
the  tobacco  pouch,  (made  usually  of  the  skin  of  the  otter,  beaver, 
raccoon,  fox,  pole-cat,  or  some  other  animal,  stripped  off  whole, 
with  a  little  slit  at  the  neck),  of  an  old  person  and  take  a  pipe 
ful  of  tobacco,  thinking  such  an  act  a  great  sin  and  believing 
that  it  would  be  the  cause  of  shortening  his  life.  When,  there 
fore,  in  those  days,  a  young  brave  asked  an  aged  man  permis 
sion  to  fill  his  pipe  from  the  latter's  pouch,  the  old  man  under 
stood  that  this  was  not  the  young  man's  intention  at  all,  but  he 
wished  to  place  something  in  the  pouch.  Usually,  wampum  was 
put  in  and  no  tobacco  taken  out.  This,  also,  was  done  with  the 
hope  that  the  aged  man  might  instruct  the  young  brave  how  to 
be  wise  and  to  attain  to  great  age.  Indeed,  good  counsel  is 
given,  to  bring  offerings  regularly  on  behalf  of  themselves  and 
their  friends,  to  be  chaste,  to  abstain  from  drinking  and  stealing, 
which  were  common  even  in  those  days.  These  customs,  how 
ever,  have  ceased.  The  old  have  lost  respect  and  the  young 


North  American  Indians.  77 

regard  them  but  little.  They  do  not  seem  to  be  ashamed  of  their 
vices.  For  this  reason,  Indians  themselves  declare  that  their 
condition  grows  worse  from  year  to  year.  As  there  is  neither 
law  nor  legal  penalty  among  them,  they  have  nothing  to  fear, 
except  that  an  injured  one  may  avenge  himself  in  the  manner 
in  which  he  has  been  injured.  If  one  has  seduced  the  wife  of 
another,  the  offended  party  will  seek  to  seduce  the  wife  of  the 
offender.  He  will  keep  his  purpose  a  secret  and  not  rest  until 
he  has  obtained  satisfaction,  when  he  makes  known  to  others 
what  he  has  done,  so  that  the  original  offender  may  hear  of  it. 
When,  in  a  young  female,  the  first  menstrual  discharge  oc 
curs,  generally  between  the  twelfth  and  sixteenth  year,  the  Dela- 
wares  generally  separate  such  daughters  from  all  companionship, 
the  Monsies  [Monseys]  being  more  strict  and  having  more  cere 
monies  in  the  observance  of  the  custom  than  the  Miamis.  They 
build  for  such  a  girl,  separate  hut,  apart  from  the  rest,  where 
her  mother  or  some  old  female  acquaintance  cares  for  her  and 
guards  her  so  that  none  may  see  her.  Wherefore,  she  is  also 
kept  within  the  hut  the  whole  of  the  menstrual  period,  with  the 
blanket  over  her  head.  She  is  given  little  to  eat,  but  regularly 
dosed  with  emetics.  She  is  not  allowed  to  do  any  work  during 
the  whole  time,  which  generally  lasts  twelve  days.  At  the  end 
of  the  time,  they  bring  her  into  her  home,  looking  black,  grimy 
and  dishevelled,  because  she  has  been  lying  about  in  dust  and 
ashes  the  whole  time.  Washed  and  dressed  in  new  garments, 
she  is  allowed  to  be  in  the  home,  but  required  to  wear  a  cap  with 
a  long  shield,  so  that  she  can  neither  see  any  one  readily,  nor  be 
seen.  Such  a  covering  she  must  wear  for  two  months,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  she  is  informed  that  she  may  marry. 

The  Shavanose  [Shawanese]  and  Mingoes,  however,  who 
observe  much  the  same  custom,  follow  a  different  course  in  this 
matter.  The  young  woman  in  question  is  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  house.  She  prepares  food  for  those  in  the  house,  of  the 
corn  and  fruits  she  has  raised.  Of  such  food  she  does  not,  how 
ever,  herself  partake,  but  goes  to  her  hut,  apart  from  the  others, 
and  there  prepares  and  eats  her  food. 

Every  month,  during  her  menstrual  period,  a  Delaware 
woman  lives  by  herself  in  a  separate  hut,  which  is  usually  very 


78  David  Zcisberger's  History 

poorly  built,  and  remains  there  two  or  three  days,  food  being 
taken  to  her.  When  the  time  is  over  they  bathe  and  wash  their 
clothes  and  are  allowed  to  return  to  their  husbands.  During  the 
menstrual  period,  they  are  not  permitted  to  do  any  cooking  or 
domestic  work.  None  will  eat  what  a  woman  in  this  condition 
prepares,  for  food  prepared  under  such  circumstances  is  said  to 
be  unwholesome  and  to  cause  pain  in  the  abdomen.  The  women 
do  not  go  into  company,  but  keep  to  their  huts  until  their  time 
is  over.  Hence,  it  occasionally  happens  that  a  woman  engaged 
in  baking  will  leave  everything  and  go  to  her  hut.  This  custom 
does  not  obtain  among  the  Mingoes ;  their  women  continue  their 
usual  work  and  remain  in  the  house. 

Tn  the  wooing  of  a  bride,  custom  demands  that  if  an  Indian 
would  proceed  honorably  and  at  the  same  time  have  assurance 
that  his  wife  when  married  will  remain  with  him,  he  first  sends 
a  present  of  blankets,  strouds,  linen  and  whatever  else  the 
Indians  commonly  use  for  clothing  and  perhaps  a  few  belts  or 
fathoms  of  wampum.  If  he  has  no  cloth,  wampum  alone  will 
do.  These  things  he  gives  to  an  Indian  to  whom  he  has  declared 
his  purpose  and  who  hands  them  to  a  friend  of  the  person  fixed 
upon,  speaks  for  him  and  presses  his  suit.  Thereupon,  the 
friends  assemble,  examine  the  present,  propose  the  matter  to  the 
girl,  who  generally  decides  agreeably  to  the  wish  of  her  parents 
and  relations.  The  suitor  is  then  informed  that  his  proposal 
has  been  accepted.  If  it  is  decided  to  decline  the  proposal,  the 
present  is  simply  returned  and  understood  to  be  a  friendly  nega 
tive.  In  case  the  match  is  agreeable,  the  girl  is  led  to  the  dwell 
ing  of  the  groom,  without  further  ceremony.  After  the  bride 
has  joined  her  husband,  the  things  constituting  the  present  are 
divided  among  the  friends  and  the  belts  of  wampum  cut  and  a 
piece  given  to  each.  The  friends  return  the  civility  by  a  present 
of  Indian  corn,  beans,  kettles,  dishes,  spoons,  sieves,  baskets, 
hatchets,  brought  in  solemn  procession  into  the  hut  of  the  newly 
married  couple.  Commonly,  the  latter  lodge  in  a  friend's  house 
until  they  can  erect  a  dwelling  of  their  own. 

This  custom  still  obtains  among  the  Indians.  Within  the 
last  years,  however,  disorderly  living  and  evil  have  become  so 
common  that  faith  is  not  kept  and  many  of  the  usages,  that  were 


North  American  Indians.  79 

good  and  preserved  a  certain  decency,  have  fallen  into  disuse. 
At  the  present  time,  even  if  the  Indian  would  take  a  wife  in 
honorable  fashion  and  proceed  in  accordance  with  the  above  de 
scribed  custom,  the  parties  concerned  will  not  deny  his  suit  in 
view  of  the  presents,  even  though  the  friends  and  the  girl  are 
not  willing  to  accept  him.  The  friends  will  urge  the  girl  to  live 
with  the  man  a  short  time,  and  tell  her  that  if  she  is  not  pleased, 
to  leave  him  again.  Thus  it  happens  that  women  will  go  from 
one  to  another  for  the  sake  of  the  gifts.  Yet  there  are  many 
cases  where  husband  and  wife  are  faithful  to  one  another 
throughout  life. 

Occasionally,  parents  who  have  a  son  will  agree  with  parents 
who  have  a  daughter  that  in  due  time  their  children  shall  marry. 
As,  however,  they  can  neither  persuade  nor  compel  their  children 
against  their  wishes,  it  in  the  end  depends  upon  the  children 
whether  the  match  shall  be  consummated.254 

Among  the  Mingoes  it  is  not  unusual  to  fix  upon  children 
of  four  or  five  years  of  age,  with  a  view  to  future  marriage.  In 
this  case  the  mother  of  the  girl  is  obliged  to  bring  a  basket  of 
bread  every  week  into  the  house  of  the  boy  and  to  furnish  him 
with  firewood.  The  parents  of  the  boy  must  supply  the  girl 
with  meat  and  clothes,  till  they  are  both  of  a  proper  age.  Their 
marriage,  however,  solely  depends  upon  their  own  free  will, 
for  there  is  never  any  compulsion.  If  either  man  or  woman  is 
unwilling  to  follow  up  the  engagement  entered  into  by  parents, 
no  marriage  results. 

Although  there  are  many  Indians  who  live  peaceably  with 
their  wives,  especially  if  they  have  children  for  whom  they  care 
(for  if  a  man  has  several  children  he  will  try  to  get  along  with 
his  wife-)  the  younger  Indians  at  the  present  time  generally  live 
together  only  a  very  short  "time  after  a  marriage.  Hence,  forni 
cation  is  very  common  among  them,  Satan's  influence  in  this 
respect  being  very  strong. 

If  it  is  asked  why  the  Indians  at  the  present  time  are  more 
given  to  vice  and  disorderly  living  than  formerly,  when  they 
were  as  ignorant  heathen  as  they  are  now,  two  reasons  may  be 
given.  First,  much  evil  unquestionably  has  been  taught  them 
by  white  people,  especially  the  traders,  who  were  content  to  live 


£0  David  Zeisberger's  History 

among  the  Indians  as  long  as  there  were  no  Indian  wars. 
Through  the  examples  of  the  traders,  also  the  Indians  acquired 
the  habit  of  drinking  to  excess.  Secondly,  the  Indians  had  for 
merly  great  respect  for  the  aged  and  the  chiefs,  from  whom  they 
learned  that  unfaithfulness  in  the  marriage  relationship  was  a 
great  crime  and  that  whoever  was  guilty  of  such  evil  would  live 
neither  long  nor  happily.  At  the  present  time  they  show  little 
reverence  to  the  -aged  and  each  one  thinks  himself  to  be  wise  in 
his  own  conceits. 

The  Indian  women  are  in  general  of  a  very  strong  bodily 
constitution.  There  are  generally  clever  and  experienced  women 
enough  who  are  able  to  give  assistance  and  advice  in  time  of 
labor ;  generally,  women  will  remain  in  the  house  at  this  time. 
Some  go  into  the  woods  by  themselves  and  bring  their  children 
to  the  house  when  they  have  seen  the  light  of  day.  Most 
mothers  nurse  their  children  until  they  are  two  or  more  years 
old.  During  this  time  many  husbands  have  concubines,  though 
not  in  the  house. 

If  it  is  left  to  the  mother  to  give  the  child  a  name,  she  uses 
little  ceremony  and  calls  it  after  some  peculiar  mark  or  character 
in  it,  for  instance  the  Beautiful,  the  Good  Child,  the  Great- 
Eye,  sometimes  giving  it  a  name  of  unsavory  meaning.  If  the 
father  gives  the  child  a  name  he  pretends  that  it  has  been  sug 
gested  to  him  in  a  dream.  The  name  is  given  at  a  sacrifice,  on 
which  occasion  the  Indian  brings  to  some  aged  person,  who 
performs  the  offering,  a  string  of  wampum,  and  tells  him  that 
he  wishes  his  child's  name  to  be  named  thus  and  so.  During 
the  sacrifice  some  other  person  sings  a  song  in  Indian  fashion 
at  a  public  gathering  and  makes  known  the  child's  name.  This 
is  called  praying  over  the  child.  The  same  ceremony  is  per 
formed  when  an  adult  person  receives  a  name,  even  although  he 
may  already  have  been  named.  It  is  not  common  to  call  an  adult  by 
his  name,  for  they  are  ashamed  of  their  own  names.  If  the 
attention  of  any  one  is  to  be  attracted  it  is  done  in  some  other 
fashion  than  by  the  use  of  the  name.  In  case  of  children,  the 
names  are  used.  In  assemblies  and  in  discourses  they  do  not 
use  the  name  of  any  one  who  is  present,  though  absent  persons 
are  referred  to  by  their  names. 


North  American  Indians.  81 

The  children  have  entirely  their  own  will  and  never  do 
anything  by  compulsion.  Told  to  do  something  they  do  not  care 
about,  the  children  let  it  go  by  default  and  are  not  reprimanded 
for  it.  Yet  many  wellbred  children  are  found  among  them  who 
pay  great  attention  and  respect  to  parents  and  do  things  to  please 
them.  They  are  courteous,  even  to  strangers.  They  respond  to 
rnild  treatment.  The  contrary  generally  produces  bitterness, 
hatred  and  contempt.  The  women  are  frequently  guilty  of  thus 
raising  their  children  to  anger,  for  the  women  are  often  ill-tem 
pered.  By  way  of  punishment,  they  will  pour  water  on  the 
children  or  thrust  them  into  the  water.  The  parents  are  care 
ful  not  to  beat  their  children,  lest  the  children  might  remember 
it  and  revenge  themselves  on  some  future  occasion.  Instances 
are  not  wanting  where  children  when  grown  have  reproached 
their  parents  for  corporal  punishment  received  in  youth  and  have 
threatened  to  return  the  indignity. 

Rarely  does  an  Indian  have  two  or  more  wives,  being  fear 
ful  of  strife  in  the  house.  Blood  relations  do  not  marry ;  in  this 
particular  they  are  even  more  strict  than  the  whites.  They 
claim  that  division  of  the  race  into  tribes  came  about  in  order 
to  make  it  more  readily  certain  that  a  man  in  taking  a  wife  was 
not  marrying  a  near  relative.  Concerning  the  tribes,  however, 
more  will  be  said  in  another  connection.  An  instance  of  an 
Indian  having  married  a  mother  and  her  daughter  at  the  same 
time  was  a  most  extraordinary  thing. 

Families  have  from  four  to  six  children.  More  than  this 
number  is  unusual.  Birth  of  twins  is  rarely  heard  of.  In  many 
cases  children  who  have  become  motherless  after  birth  have  been 
reared  by  careful  old  women.  Sometimes  children  are  given  to 
such  women.  Then  they  spare  no  pains  in  rearing  them.  Soup 
made  of  Indian  corn,  pounded  very  fine,  is  given  by  them  to 
infants  of  tender  age,  that  may  have  come  into  their  possession. 
Ordinarily,  orphans,  even  if  they  have  lost  but  the  mother,  meet 
with  hard  experience  and  often  suffer  want.  Children  who  have 
been  given  or  bequeathed,  on  the  contrary,  are  almost  without 
exception  well  cared  for. 

In  the  management  of  household  affairs  the  husband  leaves 

6 


82  David  Zeisberger's  History 

everything  to  his  wife  and  never  interferes  in  things  committed 
to  her.  She  cooks  victuals  regularly  twice  a  day.  If  she  neg 
lects  to  do  it  in  proper  time,  or  even  altogether,  the  husband 
never  says  a  word  but  goes  to  a  friend,  being  assured  that  he 
will  find  something  to  eat,  for  when  a  stranger  comes  into  the 
house  the  first  attention  shown  is  to  put  food  before  him,  if  there 
is  anything  in  the  house.  The  husband  never  offers  to  put  wood 
on  the  fire,  except  it  be  that  he  has  guests  or  some  other  extraor 
dinary  call  to  do  it,  for  the  woman  cuts  the  wood  and  brings 
it  to  the  house  and  is,  therefore,  the  proper  person  to  take  care 
of  the  fire. 

If  his  wife  longs  for  meat,  and  gives  him  a  hint  of  it,  the 
husband  goes  out  early  in  the  morning  without  victuals  and  sel 
dom  returns  without  some  game,  should  he  even  be  obliged  to 
stay  out  till  late  in  the  evening.  When  he  returns  with  a  deer, 
he  throws  it  down  before  the  door  of  the  hut  and  walks  in, 
saying  nothing.  But  his  wife,  who  has  heard  him  lay  down  his 
burden,  gives  him  something  to  eat,  dries  his  clothes  and  then 
goes  out  to  bring  in  the  game.  She  may  then  do  what  she 
pleases  with  it.  He  says  nothing,  if  she  even  gives  the  greatest 
part  of  it  to  her  friends,  which  is  a  very  common  custom.  A 
woman  generally  remembers  her  friends  when  meat  has  been 
secured,  or  when  her  husband  has  brought  flour  from  the  whites. 

If  the  husband  intends  to  take  a  journey  or  go  hunting,  he 
gives  his  wife  notice,  and  then  she  knows  that  it  is  her  business 
to  furnish  him  with  proper  provisions.  If  any  dissatisfaction 
arises  between  them,  the  husband  commonly  takes  his  gun  and 
walks  off  into  the  woods,  without  telling  his  wife  whither  he  is 
going.  Sometimes  he  does  not  return  for  some  days,  when  both 
parties  have  generally  forgotten  their  quarrels  and  live  again 
in  peace. 

Young  people  who  marry  rarely  remain  faithful  to  each 
other,  but  join  themselves  to  others  and  again  separate,  continu 
ing  such  disorderly  living  until  they  are  older  and  more  sensible. 
Then  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  they  find  one  another 
again,  or  the  husband  may  join  himself  permanently  to  some 
other  woman  and  settle  down  to  housekeeping.  Marriages  are 
contracted  early  in  life,  when  men  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty 


North  American  Indians.  83 

years  of  age  and  women  fourteen  or  fifteen.  There  is  in  gen 
eral  no  very  strong  tie  between  married  people,  not  even  between 
the  older.  A  mere  trifle  furnishes  ground  for  separation.  Not 
every  Indian,  however,  is  indifferent  to  the  light  behavior  of  his 
wife.  Many  a  one  takes  her  unfaithfulness  so  to  heart  that  in 
the.  height  of  his  despair  he  swallows  a  poisonous  root,  which 
generally  causes  death  in  two  hours,  unless  an  antidote  be  ad 
ministered  in  good  time ;  this  is  often  done,  the  Indians  knowing 
that  the  properties  of  certain  herbs  counteract  each  other  and 
being  able  to  judge  from  the  effects,  what  poison  has  been  taken. 
Women,  also,  have  been  known  to  destroy  themselves  on  account 
of  a  husband's  unfaithfulness.  To  prevent  such  a  calamity,  they 
make  use  of  a  Beson,  a  love-charm,  prepared  by  the  old  people 
and  sold  at  a  good  price.  This  is  constantly  carried  about  by 
one  or  the  other  of  the  parties  and  is  believed  to  keep  man  or 
woman  faithful.  Such  a  charm  is  even  declared  to  have  had  the 
effect  of  making  a  woman  run  always  and  everywhere  after  her 
husband,  until  weary  of  life  she  has  destroyed  herself,  or  of 
similarly  affecting  a  man.  For  this  Beson,  also,  the  Indians 
have  their  antidote.  All  this  converted  Indians  have  related  to 
me. 

Older  men  and  women,  particularly,  have  another  Beson, 
supposed  to  have  the  magic  power  of  bringing  many  presents 
to  them.  This  charm  they  guard  jealously  among  their  most  pre 
cious  belongings,  and  is  said  to  have  the  effect  of  bringing  them 
food,  clothing  and  whatever  else  they  may  need.  It  is  prepared 
of  roots  pounded  very  fine,  incantations  being  murmured  mean 
while.  A  little  of  this  preparation,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  is 
sold  with  a  white  and  black  wampum  shell  for  a  considerable 
price,  often  for  a  belt  of  wampum  with  several  pounds  in  money. 
The  love  charm  and  others  are  similarly  prepared.  Usually, 
this  is  done  by  old  women,  who  thus  support  themselves  and 
promote  superstition  among  the  young. 

The  men  have  a  Beson  for  the  chase.  This  beson  is  a  prep 
aration  made  by  old  men,  who  are  no  more  able  to  hunt,  consist 
ing  of  roots  and  herbs  or  made  of  the  seeds  of  a  certain  plant. 
This  is  sold  by  them  at  a  high  price.  They  may  earn  much  in 
this  way,  for  every  huntsman  carries  such  a  charm  about  in  his 


84  David  Zeisberger's  History 

pocket.  Thus  the  old  men  support  themselves  when  they  can  no 
longer  engage  in  the  chase.  As  there  are  several  sorts  of  charm 
of  this  character,  every  one  is  desirous  to  get  the  best,  even  if 
he  has  already  at  the  price  of  half  the  catch  of  a  season  bought 
one  charm  and  if  it  should  cost  him  the  greater  part  of  his  prop 
erty  to  get  the  new  one  of  which  he  has  heard.  Some  Indians 
chew  a  certain  root  when  on  the  deer-hunt,  so  the  deer  may  not 
notice  their  approach  when  the  wind  blowing  over  the  Indian 
to  the  game  would  otherwise  give  the  alarm. 

Another  kind  of  Beson,  considered  to  be  a  more  powerful 
charm,  is  taken  inwardly  and  occasions  violent  vomiting,  but  this 
is  not  in  common  use.  According  to  the  opinion  of  the  Indians 
this  beson  will  prove  mischievous  and  have  a  contrary  effect 
unless  every  ceremony  connected  with  its  use  is  attended  to  with 
the  most  scrupulous  exactness.  If  a  huntsman  shoots  nothing 
for  several  days,  he  swallows  a  small  dose,  observing  all  the 
rules  prescribed  by  magic  art.  Not  having  taken  any  food  he  then 
starts  on  the  chase  and  does  not  return  before  evening  unless  he 
has  secured  some  game.  It  is  claimed  that  the  use  of  this  charm 
enables  them  to  shoot  deer  in  considerable  numbers.  I  have  ob 
served,  however,  that  Indians  have  repeatedly  taken  such  doses 
during  a  period  of  three  weeks  and  not  been  successful.  In 
such  cases  ill-luck  is  ascribed  to  some  other  cause,  frequently  to 
the  presence  of  a  missionary.  In  cases  where  Indians,  unable  to 
secure  anything  in  spite  of  the  use  of  this  beson  while  I  was 
present  have  been  successful  in  my  absence,  it  has  appeared  that 
my  presence  has  in  some  way  interfered  with  their  incantations. 
In  connection  with  the  chase  they  lay  much  stress  on  dreams.  If 
the  dreamer  fancies  he  sees  an  Indian  and  hears  him  say,  "If 
thou  will  sacrifice  to  me,  thou  shalt  shoot  deer  at  pleasure,''  he 
will  immediately  prepare  a  sacrifice  and  burn  the  whole  or  part 
of  a  deer  in  honor  of  the  apparition. 

Occasionally,  when  an  Indian  would  go  hunting  for  a  sea 
son,  he  will  by  way  of  preparation  shoot  a  deer  or  two,  bring 
home  the  flesh  and  prepare  a  feast,  which  is  at  the  same  time  a 
sacrifice,  to  which  the  aged  are  invited.  The  latter  pray  for  him 
that  he  may  be  fortunate  and  then  he  departs  to  stay  away  some 
time. 


North  American  Indians.  85 

The  Delaware  Indians  use  no  other  than  rifle-barrelled  guns, 
having  satisfied  themselves  that  these  are  the  best  for  shooting 
at  long  range,  in  which  they  are  very  skillful  and  shooting  ac 
curately.  They  have  acquired  considerable  skill  in  making  minor 
repairs  when  their  weapons  get  out  of  order.  Some  have  even 
learned  to  furnish  them  with  stocks,  neatly  and  well  made.  An 
Indian  really  intent  on  making  something  will  not  spare  pains 
or  time  in  accomplishing  his  purpose  even  when  he  has  not  seen 
the  thing  made  and  takes  great  pride  in  the  work  of  his  hands. 
Among  nations  living  farther  inland  the  rifle-barrelled  guns  are 
rare  and  muskets  are  more  commonly  found,  often  in  very  poor 
condition,  except  among  the  Shawanose  [Shawanese]  who  know 
and  value  the  rifle-barrelled  gun. 

It  occurs  to  me  to  add  that  when  a  man  and  his  wife  have 
no  children,  they  generally  separate  before  long,  each  believing 
the  other  to  be  the  guilty  cause,  and  attributing  it  to  the  other. 
There  are  also  women  who  never  have  children.  Such  a  one 
goes  from  one  man  to  another  until  some  man  who  has  children 
already  takes  her.  There  are  men  also  who  never  have  children. 
In  both  sexes,  however,  these  cases  are  rare. 

Cursing  and  swearing  are  never  heard  among  the  Indians ; 
they  have  no  words  of  this  character  in  their  language.  If  wo 
men  or  men  would  berate  one  another  —  rarely  the  case  among 
men,  except  in  case  of  the  younger,  more  frequent  among 
women  —  they  direct  words  and  speeches  at  one  another  which 
would  not  be  considered  terrible  by  other  people  but  are  very 
seriously  taken  by  the  Indians.  If  they  would  revile  one  another 
in  extremest  fashion,  they  use  some  obscene  expressions. 

Mothers  carry  the  children  on  their  backs  under  the  blanket. 
They  do  this  even  when  the  children  are  five  years  old  and  over, 
for  they  love  their  children.  In  former  days  it  was  the  custom 
to  bind  the  child  upon  a  board  which  was  carried  by  means  of  a 
band  fastened  round  the  head  in  such  a  way  that'the  child  was 
suspended  on  the  back  in  an  upright  position.  This  practice  gets 
more  and  more  out  of  fashion,  for  the  reason  that  it  has  been  the 
cause  of  miserable  death  of  the  children.  It  was  customary  that 
children  thus  fastened  were  placed  against  a  bench  or  elsewhere, 


86  David  Zeisberger's  History 

the  mother  going  to  fetch  water  or  on  some  other  errand.  The 
children  by  pushing  and  kicking  not  infrequently  tumbled  them 
selves  into  the  fire  or  other  danger  and  thus  miserably  perished, 
or  were  severely  burned.  For  this  reason  the  custom  is  in  dis 
favor. 

Their  houses  are  fairly  clean,  some  being  superior  in  this 
respect  and  affording  a  comfortable  night's  lodging  for  a 
European.  In  case  a  guest  is  expected,  especially  if  it  be  a  white 
person,  they  prepare  as  comfortable  a  bed  as  possible.  They 
sweep  the  bunk,  that  serves  as  seat  and  table  in  the  daytime  and 
as  bed  at  night,  and  spread  a  mat  with  one  or  more  deer  or  bear 
skins  upon  it.  Though  usually  a  comfortable  couch  in  summer 
time  it  may  be  made  very  uncomfortable  by  the  fleas  brought  in 
by  dogs.  Their  kettles,  dishes  and  spoons  are  not  kept  in  good 
order;  sometimes  they  are  only  licked  by  the  dogs  in  lieu  of 
washing.  Dishes  and  spoons  they  make  themselves  of  wood, 
sometimes  of  tree  knots  or  growths,  often  very  neatly.  The 
spoons  are  generally  large  and  round  shaped.  Occasionally,  a 
spoon  will  be  used  by  several  people,  turn  about,  at  a  meal. 
Brass  kettles,  to  be  found  in  most  houses  because  very  necessary 
for  sugar  boiling,  are  bought  from  the  whites. 

The  Indians  are  lovers  of  finery  and  dress,  the  women  more 
than  the  men;  the  latter  take  care  that  the  women  adorn  them 
selves  in  proper  manner.  The  men  clothe  themselves  rather 
meanly,  regarding  it  as  a  disgrace  to  be  better  appareled  than 
their  wives.  The  dress  which  particularly  distinguishes  the  wo 
men  is  a  petticoat  or  strowd,  blue,  red  or  black,  made  of  a  piece 
of  cloth  about  two  yards  long,  adorned  with  red,  blue  or  yellow 
bands  laid  double  and  bound  about  the  body.  Many  women  wear 
a  white  shirt  over  the  strowd,  decorated  with  silver  buckles,  the 
more  the  better.  Red  or  blue  leggings  are  worn,  made  of  fine 
cloth  joined  by  a  broad  band  of  silk  bordered  with  coral.  These 
leggings  reach  only  to  the  feet.  Shoes  are  made  very  neatly. 
Over  the  first  strowd  they  may  wear  another,  not  decorated  with 
ribbons,  which  if  it  inconveniences  them  in  their  movements  may 
be  easily  laid  aside.  Thus  clad  a  woman  is  well  dressed.  In 
place  of  the  white  shirts,  blue  linen  or  cotton  may  be  worn.  When 
they  wear  a  white  shirt,  which  is  preferably  of  fine  linen,  it  is 


North  American  Indians.  87 

often  dyed  red  with  cinnabar  about  the  neck.  Such  a  shirt  may 
be  worn  unwashed  until  it  is  torn.  More  careful  women,  how 
ever  wash  their  clothing.  Men  and  women  paint  their  faces 
almost  daily,  especially  if  they  go  out  to  a  dance  in  the  evening. 
Men,  particularly,  think  it  is  proper  to  paint  and  often  their 
whole  head  is  colored  vermillion.255  Here  and  there  black  spots 
may  be  introduced,  or  they  paint  one-half  of  their  head  and  face 
black,  the  other  red.  Figures  are  added  according  to  taste.256 
Indian  women  never  paint  their  faces  with  a  variety  of  figures, 
but  rather  make  a  round  red  spot  upon  each  cheek  and  redden  the 
eyelids,  the  tops  of  their  heads  and,  in  some  cases,  the  rims  of 
the  ears  and  the  temples.1'1"'7  Older  women  adorn  themselves 
but  rarely,  usually  appearing  in  old  cast-off  garments.  Even 
if  the  husband  of  such  a  woman  provides  new  clothing,  she  will 
rarely  put  it  on.  especially  if  she  has  a  daughter  to  whom  she 
gives  the  new  clothing  in  exchange  for  old  garments. 

Their  towns  are  generally  laid  out  near  a  lake,  river  or 
brook,  yet  sufficiently  elevated  to  escape  the  danger  of  inunda 
tions,  which  are  very  common  in  spring.  In  building  towns  no 
regular  plan  is  observed  but  every  one  builds  according  to  his 
fancy.  The  houses  are  not  built  close  together.  Some  years  ago, 
when  the  Delawares  planned  Gochachgunk,  they  wished  to  imi 
tate  the  Christian  Indians  and  build  their  town  in  orderly  fash 
ion  but  they  did  not  succeed,  even  though  they  had  laid  it  out. 
When  they  have  lived  long  in  one  place,  it  at  last  becomes  trou 
blesome  to  secure  wood  for  fuel  because  all  the  wood  in  the 
neighborhood  has  been  used.  This  causes  them  to  leave  the 
place  and  plan  a  new  village  for  the  sake  of  the  wood  and  other 
conveniences.  Although  they  have  horses  that  roam  about  and 
are  rarely  used  except  when  they  wish  to  ride,  it  is  too  trouble 
some  for  them  to  break  these  to  work  and,  furthermore,  since 
fetching  wood  is  the  work  of  the  women,  the  men  do  not  con 
cern  themselves  about  it. 

Of  inheritances  they  know  nothing.  Every  Indian  knows 
that  whatever  he  leaves  at  his  death  is  divided  among  his  friends. 
If  a  woman  becomes  a  widow,  no  matter  how  long  she  may  have 
lived  with  her  husband,  friends  come,  take  everything  that  be- 


88  David  Zeisberger's  History 

longed  to  the  man,  and  bring'  it  to  one  place.  The  friends  do 
not  keep  a  single  article,  for  they  wish  to  forget  the  dead  and 
are  afraid  lest  the  smallest  part  of  the  property  of  the  deceased 
should  remind  them  of  him.  They  give  what  the  deceased  has 
left  to  their  friends  and  no  one  of  his  friends  receives  anything; 
even  though  he  should  wish  to  take  something  he  will  not  do  it 
through  fear  of  the  others.  If  a  dying  Indian  leaves  his  gun  or 
any  other  trifle  to  a  particular  friend  the  legatee  is  immediately 
put  in  possession  and  no  one  disputes  his  right.  The  widow  gets 
nothing,  yet  whatever  the  husband  has  given  to  his  wife  during 
his  life-time  remains  her  property.  Therefore  we  need  not  won 
der  that  a  married  Indian  pair  should  not  have  their  goods  in 
common,  for  otherwise  the  wife  would  be  left  wholly  destitute 
after  her  husband's  death.  In  like  manner  the  husband  inherits 
nothing  when  his  wife  dies. 

According  to  ancient  custom  a  widow  should  not  marry 
again  within  a  year  after  the  death  of  her  husband,  for  the  In 
dians  say  that  he  does  not  forsake  her  before  that  time.  At  the 
end  of  this  period,  however,  they  believe  that  his  soul  goes  to 
its  place.  A  widow  must  endeavor  to  live  by  her  own  industry. 
She  is  not  permitted  to  purchase  any  meat,  for  the  Indians  are 
superstitiously  persuaded  that  their  guns  fail  if  a  widow  should 
eat  of  the  game  they  have  killed.  Now  and  then  a  kind  friend 
will  venture  to  transgress  the  rule  and  give  her  some  meat  se 
cretly.  As  soon  as  the  first  year  of  her  widowhood  is  passed, 
the  friends  of  the  deceased  husband  clothe  and  provide  for  her 
and  her  children.  They  also  propose  another  husband  if  they 
know  of  a  desirable  party,  or,  at  least,  tell  her  that  she  is  now 
at  liberty  to  choose  for  herself.  If,  however,  she  has  not  at 
tended  to  the  prescribed  rule  but  married  within  the  year,  they 
never  trouble  themselves  about  her  again  except,  perhaps,  to 
speak  evil  of  her. 

If  a  man's  wife  die,  her  relatives  pretend  to  have  some  claim 
upon  him  until  a  year  has  passed.  If  he  has  remained  a  widower 
during  that  time  they  generally  secure  him  a  wife,  preferring 
a  sister  of  the  departed,  if  one  be  living. 

The  burying  places  are  at  some  distance  from  the  towns. 
Before  thev  had  hatchets  and  other  tools  they  used  to  line  the 


North  American  Indians.  89 

inside  of  a  grave  with  the  bark  of  trees  and  when  the  corpse  was 
let  down  they  placed  some  pieces  of  wood  across,  which  were 
again  covered  with  bark  and  then  the  earth  thrown  in.  When 
they  were  able  to  split  boards  they  placed  them,  not,  however, 
joined  in  any  way,  in  the  grave  in  such  a  manner  that  the  corpse 
might  be  between  them.  A  fourth  board  was  laid  over  it  as  a 
cover.  Now  they  have  learned  to  make  proper  coffins.  The 
graves  are  generally  dug  by  old  women  as  the  young  people 
abhor  this  kind  of  work.  The  coffin  is  made  by  men  and  placed 
in  the  grave.  Then  the  corpse  is  brought,  dressed  in  new  cloth 
ing  and  a  white  shirt,  with  the  face  and  shirt  painted  red,  laid 
upon  a  new  mat  and  let  down  into  the  grave.  They  cover  the 
body  with  the  strowd  and  nail  up  the  coffin.  Formerly  it  was 
the  custom  to  place  the  pouch,  tobacco,  pipe,  knife,  fire  material, 
kettle  and  hatchet  in  the  grave  but  this  is  no  longer  done.  They 
also  fill  up  the  grave  with  earth,  which  was  not  done  in  former 
times.  The  graves  are  all  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
head  was  turned  to  the  east  and  the  feet  to  the  west.  At  the 
head  of  the  corpse  a  tall  post  is  erected,  pointing  out  who  is 
buried.  If  the  deceased  was  a  chief  this  post  is  neatly  carved 
but  not  otherwise  decorated.  If  it  was  a  Captain  the  post  is 
painted  red  and  his  head  and  glorious  deeds  are  portrayed  upon 
it.  The  burial  post  of  a  physician  is  hung  with  a  small  tortoise 
shell  which  he  used  in  his  juggling  practice.  In  honor  of  a  great 
warrior  his  warlike  deeds  are  exhibited  in  red  color  on  the  burial 
post. 

In  the  evening  soon  after  sunset  and  in  the  morning  before 
daybreak  the  female  relations  and  friends  assemble  in  the  house 
of  the  deceased  and  mourn  over  the  body.  This  is  done  until 
he  is  buried.  All  the  effects  of  the  deceased  are  piled  up  near  the 
body.  These  are  taken  to  the  place  of  burial  and  the  greater 
part  is  distributed  among  those  who  assisted  in  burying  the 
dead.  The  rest  is  given  to  the  friends  present,  each  receiving  a 
share.  During  the  letting  down  of  the  corpse  into  the  grave  the 
women  set  up  a  deafening  howl.  Men  deem  it  a  shame  to  weep, 
yet  in  silence  and  unobserved  they  often  cannot  refrain  from 
tears.  After  the  ceremony  is  over  the  mother,  grandmother  or 
other  near  female  relative  of  the  deceased  goes  evening  and 


90  David  Zeisberger's  History 

morning  to  the  grave  and  weeps  over  it.  This  is  repeated  daily 
for  some  time  but  gradually  less  and  less  till  the  mourning 
period  is  over.  .Sometimes  they  place  victuals  on  the  grave  that 
the  deceased  may  not  suffer  hunger.  The  food  thus  left  is  gen 
erally  consumed  by  dogs. 

The  Nantikoks  [Nantikokes]  of  whom  more  in  another 
place,  have  this  singular  custom  that  about  three  or  four  months 
after  the  funeral  they  open  the  grave,  take  out  the  bones,  clean 
them  of  the  flesh  and  dry  them,  wrap  them  up  in  new  linen  and 
inter  them  again.  A  feast  is  usually  provided  for  the  occasion, 
consisting  of  the  best  they  can  afford.  Only  the  bones  of  the 
arms  and  legs  of  the  corpse  are  thus  treated.  All  the  rest  is 
buried  or  burned. 

The  Indians  are  a  free  people,  knowing  neither  law  nor  re 
straint.  They  may  not  be  prevailed  on  in  any  matter  that  does 
not  please  them,  much  less  forced.  If  they  cannot  be  persuaded 
with  gentle  words,  further  effort  is  in  vain. 

Each  of  them  may  settle  where  he  pleases.  Not  satisfied 
with  one  place,  an  Indian  may  move  to  a  town  with  which  he 
is  better  pleased  and  no  one  offers  any  objection ;  or  he  may 
retire  to  a  solitary  place.  Rarely  will  a  family  move  far  away 
from  all  society,  though  they  frequently  live  apart  from  the 
towns  to  avoid  being  annoyed  by  drunkards ;  or  they  live  thus 
alone  in  order  to  carry  on  the  profitable  traffic  in  rum  more  to 
their  advantage.  Many  engage  in  rum  traffic,  especially  women, 
who  fetch  it  from  the  white  people  and  sell  at  a  considerable 
profit  to  the  Indians,  often  taking  from  the  latter  everything  they 
have,  sometimes  even  their  rifles  on  which  they  depend  for  sub 
sistence.  Chiefs  and  counsellors  have  often  considered  what 
might  be  done  to  stop  this  ruinous  trade,  and  have  often  deter 
mined  that  no  one  should  ever  bring  spirituous  liquors  into  their 
towns  again ;  for  a  time  such  a  resolution  would  be  kept,  and 
then  be  broken,  perhaps  by  the  very  ones  who  had  counselled 
the  prohibition.  Since  the  Indians  have  taken  so  much  to  drink 
ing  rum.  murders  are  more  frequent.  Murder  committed  in 
drunkenness  is  not  severely  punished.  Hence,  it  is  that  one 
harboring  hatred  for  another  will,  on  the  occasion  of  a  drinking 


North  American  Indians.  91 

orgy,  put  him  out  of  the  way,  pretending  to  be  very  drunk  and 
not  capable  of  judging  of  the  nature  of  his  deed.  Under  such 
circumstances,  according  to  ancient  usage,  the  murderer  must 
pay  a  hundred  fathoms  of  wampum  for  the  murder  of  a  man 
and  two  hundred  for  that  of  a  woman.  If  he  is  too  poor  to 
raise  the  amount,  which  is  commonly  the  case,  his  friends  help 
to  raise  it  and  turn  it  over  to  the  relatives  of  the  slain,  at  the 
same  time  delivering  a  speech.  If  any  one  has  murdered  his 
own  relative,  he  usually  escapes  without  difficulty,  for  the  family 
can  easily  find  reason  for  the  deed,  not  wishing  to  lose  two  of 
their  friends  at  once.  Should  a  murderer  not  feel  himself  safe, 
he  goes  to  another  region  or  town  where  he  is  a  stranger. 

In  case  of  theft,  which  is  held  as  a  disgrace  among  them, 
nothing  further  is  required  than  that  the  thief  must  restore  what 
he  has  stolen,  pay  for  it  or  give  something  in  exchange.  If  jus 
tice  cannot  be  satisfied  in  one  of  these  ways,  because  the  thief  has 
nothing,  loss  falls  on  the  party  robbed,  or  the  friends  of  the 
thief,  if  such  he  has,  must  make  good  the  loss. 

When  a  whole  party  goes  out  to  hunt,  they  govern  them 
selves  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  oldest  or  the  most  expert, 
particularly  if  he  be  a  member  of  the  council.  It  is  not  consid 
ered  good  form  for  one  to  leave  the  party  before  the  end  of  the 
hunt.  If  one  has  wounded  a  deer  and  another  followed  and 
killed  it,  the  skin  belongs  to  the  first  and  either  the  half  or  the 
whole  of  the  meat  to  the  latter.  If  several  take  aim  at  once  and 
they  cannot  determine  which  of  them  made  the  best  shot,  the  skin 
is  given  to  the  oldest  of  the  party,  or,  if  he  happened  to  be  one 
of  those  taking  aim,  he  is  said  to  have  killed  the  animal.  Old 
men,  therefore,  no  longer  able  to  shoot  well,  generally  get  their 
share  of  the  skins,  if  they  only  aim  now  and  then  with  the  others 
though  they  do  not  hit  the  mark. 

Such  old  men,  accompanying  a  hunting  party,  get  both 
meat  and  skins,  for  the  good  hunters  will  not  let  them  return 
empty-handed.  They  have,  in  general,  and  the  Unami  in  par 
ticular,  the  custom  that  when  a  huntsman  has  shot  a  deer,  and 
another  Indian  joins  him  or  only  looks  on  at  a  distance,  he  im 
mediately  gives  him  the  whole  animal  and  goes  in  pursuit  of 
another. 


92  David  Zeisberger's  History 

If  a  debtor  is  unable  to  pay,  the  creditor  duns  his  friends, 
who  must  pay  and  rarely  refuse  to  do  so.  Occasionally,  the 
debts  of  friends  must  be  paid  years  after  they  were  contracted, 
even  after  the  death  of  the  debtor,  if  only  the  debt  can  be  proven. 

A  purchaser,  dissatisfied  with  what  he  has  bought  or  the 
price  paid,  is  allowed  to  return  what  he  has  purchased  and  re 
cover  what  was  paid.  One  who  has  done  an  injury,  killed  a 
hog  or  chicken  or  occasioned  loss  in  some  other  way,  and  obsti 
nately  refuses  to  make  good  the  injury,  cannot  be  touched.  His 
friends  may  make  good  the  loss.  Should  the  offender,  in  the 
long  run,  not  heed  the  admonitions  of  his  friends,  they  will  drive 
him  away. 

Hence,  it  is  that  in  wars  with  whites  practically  all  the 
tribes  have  been  involved  more  or  less.  If  the  nation,  as  such, 
has  taken  no  part  in  the  war,  these  unmanageable  offenders 
have  gone  with  the  fighting  peoples,  despite  the  warnings  and 
threats  of  the  chiefs.  The  same  is  true  of  the  present  con 
flict.258  The  Delaware  chiefs  had  determined  at  its  beginning 
to  remain  neutral,  daily  admonishing  their  people  not  to  allow 
themselves  to  be  persuaded  to  go  into  the  war.  The  nation  as 
such  remained  true  to  the  determination  of  the  chiefs,  being  con 
stantly  and  earnestly  watched,  but  obstinate  offenders  took  part 
against  all  order  and  command. 

Though  the  Indians  are  a  free  people  and  not  subject  to 
the  rule  of  any  one,  each  nation,  considering  itself  a  unit,  has  a 
kind  of  government  of  its  own  choosing,  imperfect  as  it  may  be. 
This  holds  good  of  all  the  North  American  nations.  A  nation 
is  constituted  of  three  principal  Tribes,  the  first  or  leading  tribe 
is  called  Packoango,  i.  e.,  the  tribe  of  the  great  Tortoise,  the 
second,  Blem,  the  Turkey  Tribe,  the  third,  Ptucksit,  the  Wolf 
Tribe.  Each  of  the  tribes  has  its  chief  and  each  chief  his  coun 
sellors.  The  chief  of  the  Tortoise  Tribe  is  the  first  in  rank  and, 
together  with  the  other  two  chiefs,  deals  with  all  matters  of 
national  interest,  particularly,  such  as  have  reference  to  nations 
with  whom,  according  to  treaty,  friendly  relations  are  to  be 
cultivated.  A  chief  may  not  presume  to  rule  over  the  people, 
as  in  that  case  he  would  immediately  be  forsaken  by  the  whole 
tribe,  and  his  counsellors  would  refuse  to  assist  him.  He  must 


North  American  Indians.  93 

ingratiate  himself  with  the  people  and  stand  by  his  counsellors. 
Hence,  it  is  that  the  chiefs  are  generally  friendly,  gracious,  hos 
pitable,  communicative,  affable  and  their  house  is  open  to  every 
Indian.  Even  strangers  who  come  on  business  put  up  in  the 
chief's  house  and  are  accommodated  with  the  best  it  affords. 
The  ambassadors  of  other  nations  generally  lodge  with  the  chief 
and  they  are  well  cared  for.  If  their  number  is  too  great,  and  it 
has  happened  in  connection  with  weighty  affairs  concerning 
several  nations  that  ten  or  twenty  men  of  other  nations  have 
arrived  at  the  principal  chief's  house,  they  are  put  into  a  sep 
arate  house  and  provided  with  every  thing  at  the  public  expense, 
the  counsellors  taking  care  that  they  are  entertained  most  hos 
pitably  in  order  that  the  nation  may  be  in  good  repute  amongst 
other  nations. 

In  externals  a  chief  has  no  advantages  above  others.  He 
must  provide  for  his  own  maintenance,  for  no  one  is  under  any 
obligation  to  supply  his  wants.  His  wife,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
provide  sufficient  corn  for  the  year,  is  usually  assisted  by  other 
women  in  her  plantations,  for  much  corn  is  required  in  such  a 
house.  If  the  chief  is  young  and  able  to  hunt  he  will,  his  offi 
cial  duties  permitting,  occasionally  join  the  chase.  He  will  even 
secure  his  own  firewood  as  far  as  possible.  In  case  he  is  old 
his  friends,  of  whom  there  are  usually  many,  and  other  Indians 
will  furnish  him  with  game,  especially  if  he  be  popular. 

The  council  house  is  either  the  house  of  the  chief,  which  is 
commonly  large  and  roomy,  or  a  building  erected  for  that  pur 
pose.  Here  public  councils  are  held,  that  is,  such  where  mes 
sages  which  have  arrived  from  whites  or  other  Indians  are  pub 
lished.  Every  one  may  listen  and  the  messages  are  also  dis 
cussed.  In  case  there  is  something  of  particular  importance  to 
consider,  only  the  chief  and  the  counsellors  assemble  and  deter 
mine  upon  the  matter.  The  old  chief  Netawatwes259  used  to 
lay  all  affairs  of  state  before  his  council  for  consideration.  When 
they  gave  him  their  opinion,  he  either  approved  of  it  or  indi 
cated  what  was  missing  or  not  correct  in  the  speech,  upon  which 
they  would  make  the  necessary  amendments.  Thus  he  kept 
them  active  and  was  held  in  great  esteem. 

The  chief  has  the  council  bag  in  his  possession,  as  also  the 


94  David  Zeisberger's  History 

treaties  that  have  been  made  with  the  governors  of  the  provinces 
and  other  documents,  although  they  are  not  able  to  read.  These 
constitute  the  archives,  where  all  messages  and  reports  are  kept. 
With  each  message  or  speech  there  are  one  or  more  strings  or 
belts  of  wampum.  These,  with  the  message  or  speech  after  the 
latter  have  been  properly  considered  and  answered,  are  deposited 
in  the  archives.260  In  connection  with  such  a  message  there 
may  be  a  string  or  belt  to  each  point,  for  as  soon  as  the  deliverer 
of  a  message  has  finished  with  a  point  he  gives  over  a  string  or 
belt  to  the  chief,  gets  out  another  and  continues  to  speak  until 
his  message  has  been  fully  delivered  when  he  announces  that 
he  has  done.  If  the  strings  and  belts  are  handed  about  from 
one  to  another  in  the  council  this  is  an  indication  that  the  mes 
sage  is  being  favorably  received.  It  may  happen,  however,  that 
the  chief  does  not  take  the  belt  into  his  hands  but  pushes  it 
to  one  side  with  a  stick,  in  which  case  no  one  will  touch  it.  The 
messenger  who  has  brought  it  must  in  this  case  take  it  back. 
This  signifies  that  his  message  does  not  find  approbation  and  it 
is  accounted  a  disgrace.  Such  a  rejected  belt  may  be  a  war  belt 
summoning  the  people  to  war,  or  it  may  be  a  belt  admonishing 
them  to  maintain  peace,  or  something  else  that  is  not  agree 
able  may  be  required. 

The  wampum  which  Europeans  make  and  barter  to  the 
Indians  is  made  of  sea-mussel  shells.  One  variety  is  quite 
white,  the  other  dark  violet,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  and  round.  A  hole  is  bored 
lengthwise  through  each  shell,  large  enough  to  admit  a  heavy 
cord.  They  are  strung  like  beads.  Wampum  constitutes  the 
money  of  the  Indians.  Two  hundred  shells  cost  a  buck  hide, 
or  a  Spanish  dollar.261  Before  the  white  people  came  they  had 
no  such  wampum  for  want  of  proper  instruments  to  make  it.262 
The  white  are  a  little  less  in  value  than  the  dark. 

Strings  are  made  of  the  beads  that  have  been  strung  as 
described.  Two,  four  or  six  placed  side  by  side  and  properly 
fastened  form  a  string.  A  string  is  usually  half  a  yard  long, 
sometirrles  longer.  Upon  delivery  of  a  string  a  long  speech  may 
be  made  and  much  said  upon  the  subject  under  consideration. 


North  American  Indians.  95 

But  when  a  belt  is  given  few  words  are  spoken,  and  they  must 
be  words  of  great  importance,  frequently  requiring  an  explan 
ation.  Belts  are  of  pure  wampum  worked  in  all  manner  of 
clever  forms  by  the  Indian  women,  they  being  informed  in  each 
case  what  the  figures  must  be,  inasmuch  as  the  figures  must 
correspond  with  the  message.  A  belt  is  three  or  four  inches 
broad  and  about  a  yard  long.263  Neither  color  nor  the  other 
quantities  of  wampum  are  matters  of  indifference,  but  have  an 
immediate  reference  to  those  things  which  they  are  meant  to 
confirm.  A  white  string  of  belt  signifies  a  good  message  and 
such  a  belt  may  have  figures  in  dark  wampum.  If  a  treaty  is 
to  be  made  or  renewed  with  another  nation  the  message  is  com 
monly  accompanied  by  a  Road  Belt.  This  is  a  white  belt  with 
two  rows  of  black  wampum  running  the  entire  length  with  a 
white  row  between  the  two  black  rows  also  running  the  entire 
length  of  the  belt.  This  signifies  that  the  way  from  one  na 
tion  to  another  has  been  cleared  of  all  brush,  trees  and  stones. 
At  the  ends  of  the  belt  the  two  nations  are  likewise  represented 
by  two  small  dark  spots.  If  a  string  or  belt  of  wampum  is  in 
tended  to  confirm  a  warning  against  evil  or  an  earnest  reproof 
the  belt  delivered  is  in  black.  When  a  nation  is  called  upon 
to  go  to  war  or  war  declared  against  it  the  belt  is  black  or 
marked  with  red,  having  in  the  middle  the  figure  of  an  hatchet 
in  white  wampum.  A  peace  belt  is  quite  white,  a  fathom  long 
and  a  hand  broad  and  of  not  inconsiderable  value. 

A  chief  has  more  use  for  the  white  wampum  than  the  black. 
In  particular  cases  and  upon  extraordinary  occasions  a  voluntary 
contribution  of  wampum  is  made  by  the  whole  tribe  or  nation. 
The  rich  are  considered  as  principal  supporters  of  the  chiefs 
and  furnish  them  with  wampum  in  an  emergency,  which  rarely 
occurs  more  than  once  in  three  years.  The  usual  expenses  are 
defrayed  from  the  treasury  chest  of  the  council,  which  is  never 
empty,  because  when  wampum  is  paid  out  usually  an  equal 
amount  comes  in.  In  general  the  chief  does  not  speak  in  coun 
cil,  but  has  his  speaker  to  whom  he  communicates  his  senti 
ments  briefly  and  leaves  him  to  expatiate  on  them.  The  latter 
must  be  able  to  put  the  whole  matter  in  a  speech  well  arranged, 
which  requires  a  clear  and  open  understanding,  a  faithful  mem- 


96  David  Zeisberger's  History 

ory,  experience  in  the  affairs  of  the  state  and  a  knowledge  of 
the  formal  language  employed  in  council,  which  differs  as  much 
from  the  common  language  as  does  the  language  used  by  the 
whites  in  legal  procedure,  from  the  language  of  ordinary  inter 
course. 

When  a  message  is  to  be  sent,  this  is  entrusted  to  two  or 
more  messengers.  One  of  these  is  to  be  the  speaker,  the  others 
being  ready  to  remind  him  of  anything  he  might  forget.  A  mes 
sage  is  formally  entrusted  to  ambassadors  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Council.  It  is  repeated  a  number  of  times  and  the  one  appointed 
speaker  of  the  messengers  must  in  turn  repeat  it  several  times, 
until  he  is  able  to  deliver  the  message  with  facility  and  in  proper 
form.  The  messengers  are  then  fitted  out  with  necessaries  for 
the  journey  and  dispatched.  As  the  whole  of  a  message  is  to 
be  delivered  verbally,  a  speaker  must  be  a  sensible  and  reliable 
man.  Young  men,  destined  for  such  service,  are  admitted  as 
hearers  to  the  council,  where  they  may  learn  much.  Any  one 
employed  as  messenger  is  held  in  high  regard.  They  must  be 
young  men,  of  great  endurance  on  the  march,  who  will  not  be 
stopped  by  bad  weather  or  high  waters.  On  occasions  of  ex 
treme  importance,  as  in  time  of  war,  messengers  may  have  to  be 
on  the  march  night  and  day,  finding  their  way  in  the  darkest 
night  on  paths  that  a  white  man  could  scarce  follow  in  daytime. 

The  council  meetings  are  as  quiet  and  orderly  as  if  they 
were  acts  of  devotion.  Noises,  talking  and  laughing  are  not 
heard,  even  though  the  young  may  be  present.  All  pay  strict 
attention  to  the  speaker.  The  counsellors  are  called  together 
by  a  servant  and  when  they  appear,  they  welcome  one  another, 
shake  hands  and  express  their  joy  at  meeting.  Each  brings 
pouch,  pipe  and  they  smoke  a  considerable  amount  of  tobacco 
that  has  been  mixed  with  dried  and  crushed  sumac  leaves. 
Women  are  never  admitted  to  the  council;  in  matters  of  public 
interest  they  may  stand  about  the  house  and  listen,  and  they 
account  it  an  honor  when  they  are  admitted,  to  hand  victuals 
and  keep  up  the  fire.  Provisions  must  always  be  in  plenty  in 
the  council-house,  for  eating  and  deliberating  alternate. 

The  principal  chief,  either  himself  or  through  a  speaker, 
sets  forth  the  subjects  that  shall  engage  the  attention  of  the 


North  American  Indians.  97 

council  in  a  solemn  speech.  If  the  subjects  are  of  great  impor 
tance  all  who  take  part  in  the  discussion  stand  as  they  speak. 
Each  counsellor  has  the  liberty  to  utter  his  sentiments  and  hav 
ing  made  his  speech,  sits  down.  No  one  interrupts  the  speaker 
but  all  sit  silent  and  attentive  as  if  engaged  in  an  act  of  devo 
tion.  The  speeches  are  delivered  in  a  pleasing  manner  and  the 
words  of  the  speakers  flow  as  readily  as  if  they  were  read  from 
a  manuscript.  Whoever  visits  such  an  assembly,  whether  white 
man  or  savage  Indian,  cannot  but  be  profoundly  impressed. 

A  subject  is  often  very  thoroughly  and  extendedly  discussed. 
The  chiefs  and  counsellors  in  turn  give  their  opinions  and  sug 
gestions.  When  all  have  spoken,  one  of  them  is  called  upon  to 
.sum  up  the  principal  parts  of  all  the  speeches  in  a  concise  man 
ner.  This  is  done  extempore  and  the  necessary  amendments 
proposed,  every  subject  being  brought  into  as  short  and  compre 
hensive  statement  as  possible.  Before  deliberations  begin,  the 
strings  and  belts  of  wampum  must  be  placed  in  due  order,  for 
whatever  is  said  without  being  confirmed  by  them  is  considered 
vain  and  without  effect.  They  are  so  accustomed  to  this  that 
when  they  communicate  the  contents  of  a  message,  merely  in 
private  conversation,  they  cannot  do  so  without  something  in 
their  hands,  a  strap,  a  ribbon  or  a  blade  of  grass.  Holding 
some  such  thing  in  his  hand  the  speaker  will  recount  the  points 
in  proper  order  as  with  the  strings  or  belts  of  wampum  thereto 
belonging. 

When  chiefs  are  compelled  to  give  answer  to  a  proposition 
of  which  they  do  not  approve,  but  which  they  have  consented 
to  consider  because  they  did  not  wish  openly  to  offer  an  affront, 
they  are  able  to  frame  their  reply  in  so  figurative  and  equivocal 
a  style  as  to  allow7  of  almost  any  desired  interpretation  or  ap 
plication.  Those  who  receive  such  an  answer,  know  as  little 
after  the  reply  has  been  given  as  before,  but  are  ashamed  to 
ask  further,  lest  they  should  be  regarded  as  stupid  and  because 
chiefs  are  supposed  to  understand  everything. 

When  treaty  of  peace  is  made  with  another  nation  it  is  de 
termined  that  it  shall  last  as  long  as  sun  and  moon  shine  or  rise 
and  set,  as  long  as  the  stars  are  in  the  heavens  and  the  rivers 
7 


98  Daiid  Zcisbergcr's  History 

and  waters  flow.  In  this  connection,  nations  who  make  the 
treaty,  or  are  allies,  exchange  a  pipe  between  them  which  is 
called  the  pipe  of  peace.  Such  -a  pipe  is  carefully  preserved  and 
generally  lighted  in  council  by  a  captain  or  chief,  whenever  any 
thing  occurs  relating  to  the  ally  and  each  member  smokes  a  little 
out  of  it.  The  one  who  carries  about  the  pipe  reminds  the  mem 
bers  of  the  council  of  the  covenant  and  the  time  of  its  establish 
ment.  The  head  of  the  pipe  is  commonly  of  stone,  the  stem  of 
wood  wound  with  a  fine  ribbon  neatly  decorated  with  white 
corals,  the  latter  the  work  of  the  women. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  chief  to  maintain  peace,  to  advise  peace 
as  long  as  possible.  It  is  not  in  his  power  to  begin  war  as  long 
as  the  captains  are  averse  to  this.  Without  their  consent  he  may 
not  accept  a  war  belt.  If  it  is  received  this  is  on  condition  that 
he  will  turn  it  over  to  the  captains  for  consideration.  The  chief 
must  endeavor  to  preserve  peace  to  the  utmost  of  his  power. 
If  the  captains  are  unanimous  in  declaring  war  he  is  obliged, 
as  it  were,  to  deliver  the  care  of  his  people  for  the  time  being 
into  their  hands,  for  they  are  the  warriors. 

In  the  matter  of  choice  of  a  chief  various  things  are  to  be 
observed.  The  principal  captain  may  choose  a  chief  and  inaugu 
rate  him,  and  it  is  also  in  his  power  to  take  him  out  of  office  if 
the  chief  proves  a  poor  regent,  acts  contrary  to  the  customs,  does 
according  to  his  own  wishes  and  refuses  to  accept  counsel.  The 
captains,  who  always  have  the  people  on  their  side  may  thus 
forsake  a  chief,  not  only  refusing  to  support  him  but  even  pub 
licly  announcing  that  they  do  not  agree  with  him,  and  thus  his 
power  is  at  an  end.  The  chief  must  always  be  a  member  of  that 
tribe  in  which  he  presides.  The  sons  of  a  chief  cannot  inherit 
their  father's  dignity,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  not  and  can 
not  be,  according  to  established  usages,  members  of  the  tribe, 
inasmuch  as  children  do  not  inherit  tribal  rights  from  the  father 
but  from  the  mother.265  No  Indian  will  marry  a  person  in  his 
own  tribe,  as  he  is  too  closely  related  to  all  in  it.  Herein,  the 
Indians  allege,  is  to  be  found  the  reason  for  the  existence  of 
the  tribes.  Were  it  not  for  these,  they  could  not  be  quite  sure 
whether  persons  to  be  married  are  near  relatives  or  not.  Hence, 
it  is,  also,  that  children  are  considered  the  property  of  the  wife. 


North  American  Indians.  99 

If  a  divorce  takes  place  they  follow  the  mother.  Those  that 
are  grown  up  may  stay  with  the  father  if  they  please.  Herein 
again  is  to  be  found  reason  for  the  conduct  of  parents  towards 
their  children.  They  never  oppose  their  inclinations  in  order 
not  to  lose  their  affection.  Parents  never  know  how  soon  they 
may  be  separated,  and  both  parties,  in  that  event,  fearing  de 
sertion  by  their  children,  are  very  desirous  of  gaining  and  re 
taining  their  love  and  affection.  The  Indians,  therefore,  regard 
their  wives  as  strangers.  It  is  a  common  saying  among  them, 
"My  wife  is  not  my  friend,"  that  is,  she  is  not  related  to  me 
and  I  am  not  concerned  about  her,  she  is  only  my  wife.  This 
satanic  notion  it  is  very  difficult  to  uproot. 

To  return  again  to  the  matter  of  selection  of  a  chief;  as 
his  sons  cannot,  for  the  reasons  named,  succeed  him,  a  great 
grandchild  or  nephew  may  become  chief,  that  is,  either  his 
daughter's  daughter's  son  or  his  sister's  son,  so  that  the  privilege 
of  becoming  Chief  cannot  be  confined  to  too  intimate  relationship. 

The  principal  duty  of  the  first  chief  is  to  maintain  the  peace 
and  covenants  made  between  his  people  and  the  other  Indian 
nations  and  the  Europeans  as  also  to  carry  on  a  kind  of  cor 
respondence  with  them,  all  of  which  is  generally  done  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Turkey  and  Wolf  tribes, 
unless  they  are  absent.  It  is  further  the  particular  duty  of  the 
principal  chief  to  see  to  it  that  nothing  is  neglected  and  when 
necessary  to  send  embassies.  Finding  that  it  is  necessary  to 
take  action  in  some  matter  he  summons  the  council,  submits 
the  subject  and  lets  them  deliberate  which  often  demands  of 
them  much  thought  and  attention.  Another  of  his  duties  is 
that  of  keeping  the  people  together  and  preventing  any  un 
necessary  dispersion.  Much  depends,  therefore,  on  whether  a 
chief  is  beloved  of  his  people.  Where  this  is  lacking  the  Indians 
are  like  a  swarm  of  bees  without  a  queen  bee.  A  chief  must 
prevent  all  disorders  in  his  town,  have  an  eye  to  justice,  and 
seek  to  do  away  with  strife  with  the  aid  of  his  counsellors.  But 
he  may  not  seek  to  do  this  by  force  or  severity  but  only  by  calm 
reasoning  and  friendly  exhortation.  Usually,  the  Indians  are 
amenable  to  good  words.  In  a  general  way  the  Indians  pay  due 
honor  and  respect  to  their  chiefs,  though  there  are  some  who 


100  David  Zeisberger's  History 

are  moved  neither  by  fear  of  men  nor  of  God ;  fortunately  there 
are  few  such. 

Strong  drink  occasions  much  disorder  in  the  Indian 
towns.266  If  a  chief  is  himself  an  abstainer,  he  may  accomplish 
much  against  this  evil,  but  he  must  be  ever  watchful  and  not 
tire  in  his  efforts. 

At  the  death  of  a  chief  neither  his  children,  wife,  nor 
relatives  inherit  his  possessions.  Everything  is  distributed 
among  the  people  except  the  wampum  and  belts,  which  belong 
to  the  chief  in  his  official  capacity,  and  the  Council  Bag.  These 
are  preserved  and  turned  over  to  his  successor  in  office.  In 
general,  some  person  who  lived  in  intimacy  with  the  deceased 
chief,  and  is  well  acquainted  with  the  affairs  of  state  is  chosen 
to  be  his  successor.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  such  and  such 
an  one  is  the  right  person  to  assume  the  dignity  of  chief.  If 
he  is  discreet  and  wins  the  favor  of  the  captains  and  the  peo 
ple,  the  former  in  particular,  will  support  him  in  every  possible 
way.  A  captain,  such  as  White  Eye  267  was,  is  the  Chief's  right 
hand.  He  must  undertake  everything  ordered  of  him  by  the 
chief,  even  at  the  hazard  of  his  life.  To  show  fear  would  not 
be  in  harmony  with  his  dignity  and  a  disgrace.  If  he  is 
wounded  or  killed  by  the  enemy,  the  whole  nation  joins  in 
avenging  his  death,  taking  injury  done  him  as  seriously  as  if 
it  concerned  the  person  of  the  chief.  This  the  captains  are 
aware  of  and  it  gives  them  courage. 

A  captain  has  no  more  right  to  conclude  peace  than  a  chief 
to  begin  war.268  If  peace  is  offered  to  a  captain,  when  he  is 
in  the  enemy's  country,  he  can  give  no  other  answer  than  that 
he  will  bring  the  proposal  to  the  notice  of  the  chief,  for  as  a 
warrior  he  cannot  make  peace,  and  that  in  due  time  reply  will 
be  given.  If  the  chief  inclines  to  peace,  he,  as  it  were,  assumes 
his  office  again,  exerts  his  power,  takes  the  matter  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  captain  and  desires  him  to  sit  down,  which  signifies 
declaring  a  truce.  The  hatchet  is  taken  out  of  the  captain's 
hand  and  he  is  obliged  to  cease  from  hostilities  and  keep  his 
men  quiet.  The  chief  knowing  that  inactivity  is  not  agreeable 
to  the  captain,  asks  his  assistance  in  the  negotiations  and 
generally  chooses  him  to  be  the  messenger  of  peace  to  the 


North  American  Indians.  101 

nations.  By  such  a  commission  an  accession  of  honor  and  re 
spect  is  acquired  by  the  captain.  So  soon  as  he  gives  up  the 
tomahawk,  his  men  must  cease  from  hostile  acts  and  demon 
strations. 

The  rank  of  captain  is  neither  elective  nor  hereditary.  First 
intimation  of  this  honor  comes  usually  in  a  dream,  early  in 
life,  one  or  another  having  seen  a  buffalo,  a  bear  or  other 
ferocious  animal,  or  he  has  seen  in  a  vision  an  Indian  who 
spoke  with  him  and  gave  him  the  necessary  gifts.  Such  a  dream 
is  pondered  over  and  related  to  friends  and  usually  interpreted 
as  destiny  for  the  office  of  Captain.  The  dreamer's  imagina 
tion  leads  him  to  believe  that  nothing  may  injure  him  and  that 
no  bullet  can  harm  him.  He,  therefore,  endeavors  to  attain 
to  the  necessary  qualifications  for  this  dignity  and  prove  his 
powers  for  he  must  be  tested,  as  will  appear  presently.  Occa 
sionally,  bovs  are  prepared  and  instructed  for  this  position.  These 
are  given  little  to  eat,  are  made  to  fast  often  and  long,  so  that 
their  bodies  become  emaciated,  their  minds  deranged  and  their 
dreams  wrild  and  extravagant.  Frequent  questions  are  put  to 
them  when  in  this  condition  as  to  the  dreams  they  have  had. 
So  long  as  they  have  not  dreamt  or  not  dreamt  the  right  thing, 
the  process  is  continued  until  they  have  been  reduced  to  skin 
and  bones,  when  they  usually  have  or  pretend  to  have  >a 
fantastic  dream,  declared  to  be  ominous.  The  subject  being 
minutely  considered  and  interpreted  by  their  teachers,  they  are 
solemnly  informed  what  will  be  their  future  destination.  By 
virtue  of  these  extraordinary  revelations  they  become  physicians, 
great  hunters,  rich  men,  Mantewits,  that  is,  sorcerers,  or  cap 
tains.  The  impression  thus  made  on  their  minds  is  lasting,  and 
as  they  grow  older  they  earnestly  strive  to  fulfill  their  destina 
tion,  believing  themselves  to  be  men  of  peculiar  gifts,  far  in 
advance  of  the  others.  It  is  not  enough  to  profess  to  be  destined 
for  the  dignity  of  a  captain.  The  claim  must  be  made  good. 
The  candidate  must  be  resolute,  brave,  fearless,  even  in  greatest 
danger.  If  a  leader,  who  has  not  the  rank  of  captain,  has  the 
good  fortune  not  to  lose  a  man  of  his  troop  in  six  or  seven 
engagements  and  to  bring  scalps  and  prisoners  to  the  camp,  he 
is  recognized  and  honored  as  a  captain  forthwith.  If  he  loses 


102  David  Zeisberger's  History 

a  man  he  must  secure  a  prisoner  in  his  place.  Should  he  lose 
more  than  one.  responsibility  weighs  the  more  heavily  upon 
him,  and  in  default  of  showing  an  equal  number  of  prisoners, 
his  authority  is  at  an  end  and  he  dare  not  think  of  continuing 
in  the  office.  If  an  Indian  loses  his  son,  or  one  of  his  near 
relatives  in  war,  whom  he  has  highly  valued,  he  gives  a  belt 
of  wampum  to  a  captain  and  desires  him  to  go  and  take  a 
prisoner  to  supply  the  place  of  the  deceased.  He  takes  his 
company  into  the  enemy's  country,  and  if  he  is  fortunate  in  his 
exploit,  immediately  hangs  the  belt  around  the  prisoner's  neck 
to  denote  that  he  shall  be  received  into  a  family  and  that  his 
life  is  safe.  Upon  delivering  the  prisoner  to  his  employer,  the 
captain  receives  the  belt  as  a  reward,  and  the  prisoner  is  adopted 
by  the  family  as  a  son  or  near  relative.  But  if  he  is  un 
successful  or  has  been  so  unfortunate  as  to  lose  a  man.  the 
captain's  standing  is  destroyed  and  he  is  disgraced.  It  depends, 
therefore,  in  large  degree  upon  good  fortune  whether  a  man 
becomes  or  remain?  captain.  There  are  never  very  many  cap 
tains  in  one  tribe,  but  always  some. 

Although  a  chief  is  not  supposed  to  have  much  to  do  with 
war,  his  influence  tends  greatly  either  to  prevent  or  encourage 
the  commencement  of  a  war.  for  the  Indians  believe  that  a  war 
cannot  be  successful  without  the  consent  of  the  chief,  and  the 
captains  endeavor  on  that  account  to  live  in  harmony  with  him. 
It  is  not  a  light  matter  for  the  Indians  to  begin  a  war.  as  it 
might  be  among  the  Europeans,  for  a  war  having  been  begun 
it  is  not  easy  to  bring  it  to  an  end  nor  to  be  reconciled  to  the 
enemies.  The  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  a  certain  number  are 
killed  on  both  sides  and  these,  according  to  ancient  custom,  must 
be  replaced  by  prisoners.  War  with  the  whites  is  a  different 
matter,  for  the  Indians  usually  secure  more  than  enough  of 
scalps  and  prisoners  to  make  up  their  losses,  and  they  may  sue 
for  peace  at  any  time  even  while  continuing  hostilities.  But 
with  the  nations  of  their  own  color  they  cannot  do  this,  for  they 
know  that  they  will  be  punished  by  enemies  who  will  avenge 
themselves  in  the  crudest  manner. 

The  warriors  consist  of  the  young  men,  among  whom,  how 
ever,  are  those  of  fifty  years  and  over.  The  warriors  are  under 


North  American  Indians.  103 

the  command  of  the  captains,  especially  in  times  of  war,  and  do 
nothing  without  their  consent.  They  neither  leave  the  troop 
nor  go  hunting,  as  they  know  that  their  life  and  honor  in  a 
great  measure  depends  upon  the  prudent  conduct  of  their  cap 
tains,  and  they  obey  them  with  pleasure.  The  night  previous 
to  the  march  of  the  army  is  spent  in  feasting,  at  which  the 
chiefs  are  present,  a  hog,  if  procurable,  being  killed  for  the 
occasion.  After  the  feast  the  captain  and  his  people  begin  the 
war  dance  and  continue  till  daybreak  when  they  are  quite  hoarse 
and  weary.  Sometimes  they  dance  in  turn,  each  taking  the  head 
of  the  hog  in  his  hand  ;  again  all  dance  together.  Spectators 
are  admitted,  and  may  even  join  in  the  dance.  Sometimes  in 
stead  of  a  hog  a  couple  of  dogs  are  killed,  not  because  dog's 
flesh  is  a  delicacy,  for  the  Indian  dogs  are  very  lean,  but  because 
it  is  said  to  inspire  them  with  the  true  spirit  of  war  and  murder. 
I  have  even  seen  women  partake  of  this  feast,  eating  the  dog's 
flesh  with  great  greediness.  I  have  steadily  and  courteously  re 
fused  to  partake  when  invited.  The  war  dance  having  been 
completed  they  march  out  on  the  following  day.  The  captain 
leads  and  his  men  follow  in  single  file.  When  they  reach  the 
end  of  the  street,  they  fire  their  pieces  one  after  another  and 
the  captain  begins  the  war  song.  As  both  their  friends  and  the 
women  generally  accompany  them  to  the  first  night's  encamp 
ment,  they  halt  about  two  or  three  miles  from  the  town,  dance 
the  war  dance  once  more,  and  the  day  following  begin  the 
march  proper. 

As  they  commonly  have  a  long  and  tedious  journey  into  the 
enemies'  land  their  provisions  are  soon  exhausted.  They  are 
then  obliged  to  spend  some  days  in  hunting.  Xo  one  enjoys  any 
precedence  during  the  march,  not  even  the  captain.  They  divide 
their  provisions  in  equal  shares,  even  if  each  man  should  get 
only  a  mouthful  of  bread  or  spoonful  of  meat.  When  they 
reach  Indian  towns  with  which  they  are  at  peace  provisions  are 
given  them.  They  never  go  out  in  large  parties  but  usually  in 
-mall  companies  of  ten  or  twenty,  in  order  that  they  may  not 
"•uffer  so  much  for  want  of  provisions.  The  captain  is  very  at 
tentive  to  the  condition  of  his  troop  being  answerable  for  all 
his  men.  If  but  a  few  are  weary  he  orders  all  to  halt  till  they 


104  David  Zeisberger's  History 

have  recovered.  As  soon  as  they  enter  the  enemies'  country 
they  can  hunt  no  longer  for  fear  of  being  betrayed.  They  pro 
vide  themselves,  therefore,  with  provisions  for  several  days  and 
watch  their  opportunity.  Occasionally  they  must  lie  in  hiding 
many  days  until  their  purpose  is  attained.  As  soon  as  the  deed 
has  been  accomplished,  they  hurry  away,  exercising  the  greatest 
caution  inasmuch  as  they  know  that  they  will  be  pursued  and 
may  themselves  suffer  injury.  Those  whom  they  kill  are  scalped 
and  the  scalps  taken  home.  Prisoners  secured  are  bound  and 
led  away  and  kept  bound  until  they  are  no  more  in  fear  of 
pursuers.  Thereafter  the  prisoners'  fetters  are  loosed  during 
the  day.  During  the  night  they  are  fastened  by  their  feet  to 
a  stake  so  split  as  to  admit  one  leg,  this  stake  being  fastened 
to  another  that  is  driven  into  the  ground.  If  one  of  them  is 
\vounded  the  warriors  apply  remedies  which  they  carry  with  them 
on  their  expeditions  and  generally  succeed  in  restoring  them. 
Often  the  wounded  must  be  carried,  and  if  it  is  at  all  possible 
to  get  them  away  they  are  not  left  to  perish.  They  even  carry 
off  their  dead,  or  at  least  their  scalps,  or  bury  the  dead  lest 
they  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  In  a  skirmish 
with  the  whites  they  generally  remove  their  dead,  which  makes 
it  hard  to  determine  how  many  have  been  killed  in  action.260 
They  generally  return  from  a  war  in  a  half-starved  state,  winch 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at  because  of  the  hard  experiences  they 
have  gone  through,  especially  on  the  return.  On  the  return 
march  they  are  constantly  in  fear,  not  knowing  which  night 
their  enemies  may  fall  upon  them,  hence  they  proceed  by  forced 
marches  until  they  know  themselves  to  be  out  of  danger.  Oc 
casionally,  they  are  attacked  at  night  or  at  break  of  day,  when 
they  sometimes  succeed  in  saving  life  by  flight,  leaving  their 
weapons  and  everything  else  behind.  Thus  deprived,  they  may 
be  able  to  travel  several  hundred  miles  until  they  arrive  in 
the  territory  of  peaceful  nations  where  they  again  find  sus 
tenance.  They  generally  suffer  excessive  hunger  and  fatigue 
by  the  way,  living  upon  the  bark  of  trees,  wild  herbs  and  roots. 
Much  of  this  they  do  not  have  to  fear  when  engaged  in  war 
with  whites,  for  these  will  not  pursue  them  for  any  great  dis 
tance.  Cases  have  been  known  where  the  Indians  have  attacked 


North  American  Indians.  105 

and  stormed  a  small  fort  and  taken  forty  or  fifty  men,,  women 
and  children  prisoners  and  not  lost  a  man.  The  prisoners  they 
led  into  the  woods  a  short  distance,  divided  into  two  parties 
preserving  the  more  ablebodied  and  tomahawking-  the  rest  be 
fore  their  eyes.  The  little  children  that  cried  and  wailed  were 
dashed  against  the  trees,  so  that  the  brains  stuck  to  the  bark. 
They  are  thus  barbarous  when  victorious,  and  similar  examples 
have  been  multiplied  in  times  of  war. 

Prisoners  are  not  ill-treated  as  long  as  they  are  in  the 
hands  of  the  warriors  but  fare  with  them  alike.  They  have  so 
much  the  more  to  suffer  in  the  towns  of  the  victorious  people. 
The  warriors,  upon  their  approach  to  the  town,  repeat  the  death 
whoop  according  to  the  number  of  scalps,  trophies  or  prisoners 
in  their  possession.  Upon  this  signal,  men,  women  and  children 
run  out  to  meet  them,  placing  themselves  in  two  rows.  The 
warriors  with  their  prisoners,  whom  they  lead  bound  by  their 
arms,  march  between  the  two  rows  and  halt.  The  scalps  they 
carry  on  poles  held  aloft  and  painted  red,  and  the  prisoners 
are  forced  to  dance  for  the  amusement  of  the  spectators.  The 
dance  over  they  are  ordered  to  go  to  a  house  which  they  see 
before  them  in  the  village.  As  soon  as  they  set  out  the  people 
begin  to  strike  at  them  with  switches,  clubs,  hatchets  or  their 
fists.  If  they  gain  the  house,  though  ever  so  bruised  and 
bloody,  they  are  perfectly  safe.  Indians  acquainted  with  this 
barbarous  custom,  if  they  are  not  old  men,  escape  a  great  part 
of  these  cruelties  by  running  towards  the  mark  with  all  their 
might.  Female  prisoners  are  frequently  rescued  by  the  women 
who  take  them  between  their  ranks  and  carry  them  to  the 
town.  I  have  witnessed  both  practices.  As  soon  as  the  prisoners 
have  reached  the  house  the  warriors  take  good  care  of  them, 
wash  and  dress  their  wounds  and  when  their  meals  are  ready 
serve  the  prisoners  first.  I  cannot  think  that  this  is  done  from 
compassion  but  rather  that  the  prisoners  may  look  well  and  do 
honor  to  the  triumph  they  celebrate  in  passing  through  all  the 
towns  of  their  nation  till  they  arrive  at  their  own  homes.  After 
they  have  refreshed  themselves  and  rested,  the  prisoners  are  led 
out  for  the  amusement  of  the  inhabitants.  They  fasten  strings 
of  bells  or  deer-claws  to  the  feet  of  one  of  them,  to  make  a 


106  David  Zeisberger's  History 

rattle  for  the  dance,  and  present  him  with  a  parcel  of  small 
sticks.  What  is  meant  by  the  latter,  the  prisoner  knows.  He 
takes  as  many  as  he  pleases  and  returns  the  rest.  These  de 
termine  the  number  of  short  dances  he  has  to  perform,  which 
he  does  with  great  alacrity  to  the  rattling  of  a  calabash,270 
filled  with  small  stones  and  marking  the  time.  After  each  round 
he  relates  one  of  his  heroic  deeds  or  experiences  in  war,  and 
delivers  a  stick  to  the  captain  who  sits  in  the  circle.  Though 
the  spectators  may  not  understand  his  language,  they  guess  his 
meaning  by  his  looks  and  gestures.  This  ceremony  is  repeated 
in  every  town  through  which  they  must  pass.  With  white 
prisoners  the  procedure  is  in  some  respects  different.  Commonly 
these  particularly  must  suffer  much  beating,  because  they  are 
not  conversant  with  Indian  manners  and  customs. 

When  the  parties  at  length  arrive  at  their  own  homes  with 
their  prisoners  a  council  is  held  to  determine  what  disposition 
shall  be  made  of  them.  Many  of  the  prisoners  are  received  into 
families  to  supply  the  places  of  the  slain,  the  lately  deceased  or 
those  who  may  have  perished  as  a  result  of  a  drinking  orgy,  and 
are  immediately  considered  as  members  of  the  family.  Such 
prisoners  are  well  treated,  according  to  Indian  custom,  and  their 
lot  is  bearable  if  they  content  themselves  with  their  new  sur 
roundings.  They  are  not  put  to  much  labor,  which  in  general 
is  little  regarded  by  the  Indians.  If  they  run  away  and  are 
retaken  their  lives  are  in  danger.  If  the  prisoners  are  white 
men  their  heads  are  shorn  in  Indian  fashion,  only  a  little  hair 
remaining  on  the  crown,  and  the  face  is  painted  red.  This  is 
done  as  soon  as  they  are  taken,  so  that  when  the  villages  are 
reached  it  is  hardly  possible  to  distinguish  whites  from  Indians. 
In  general  they  are  well  treated  by  the  Indians  and  allowed 
considerable  liberty,  provided  they  conduct  themselves  properly 
and  do  not  act  in  unseemly  fashion  toward  the  Indians. 

Those  unhappy  prisoners  who  are  condemned  to  die  must 
suffer  the  most  excruciating  torture,  execution  of  the  sentence 
often  being  delayed  until  the  prisoners  feel  themselves  safe. 
The  Indians  flock  to  these  executions  as  to  some  great  solemnity, 
with  a  view  to  reeking  on  the  unfortunate  captive  their  cruel 
and  revengeful  disposition.  A  fire  is  made  in  the  open,  irons 


North  American  Indians.  107 

are  heated,  and  the  unfortunate  captive  is  bound  to  a  stake 
placed  at  some  distance  from  the  fire.  He  is  burned  with  the 
irons.  Long  strips  of  flesh  are  cut  from  his  body  with  knives 
and  salt  is  rubbed  into  the  raw  wounds.  He  may  be  half  roasted 
at  the  fire,  then  released  for  a  time,  with  a  view  to  prolonging 
his  tortures,  which  sometimes  last  three  or  four  days.  At  length 
rendered  insensible  by  pain,  death  may  bring  release,  or  his 
tormentors  put  an  end  to  his  sufferings  and  throw  the  mangled 
body  into  the  flames.  Captives  often  endure  the  torture  with 
the  greatest  fortitude,  sing  of  their  heroic  deeds  accomplished 
in  war,  and  do  not  let  their  captors  notice  fear  or  terror  of  death. 

Now  and  then  a  condemned  prisoner  is  released  by  ransom ; 
sometimes  release  is  refused  no  matter  how  much  is  offered.  In 
the  year  1779  among  the  Wiandots  a  white  captive  was  tortured 
to  death.  Several  English  traders  who  were  there  offered  goods 
to  the  amount  of  several  hundred  buckskins,  that  is  so  many 
Spanish  dollars  but  without  success.  Among  the  Mingoes  and 
Shawanose  this  inhuman  method  of  treating  captives  is  par 
ticularly  in  use.  In  course  of  the  present  war271  they  have  given 
several  horrid  proofs  of  their  cruel  disposition. 

Some  years  ago  when  a  party  of  Shawanose  went  to  war 
against  the  Cherokees,  a  young  Shawanose  was  taken  captive 
by  the  Cherokees  and  condemned  to  die.  On  the  following  day 
the  fire  was  started,  he  was  tied  to  the  stake,  and  every  prepara 
tion  made  for  his  execution,  when  a  Cherokee  woman  arrived 
with  a  parcel  of  goods,  and  throwing  them  down  at  the  feet  of 
the  warrior  to  whom  the  prisoner  belonged  begged  for  his  re 
lease,  alleging  that  she  was  a  widow  and  wished  to  adopt  him 
as  her  son.  Her  request  was  granted,  the  captive  released  and 
delivered  over  to  her,  and  on  the  same  day  he  walked  up  and 
down  the  village  well  dressed.  He  was  so  grateful  to  his  pro 
tectress  that  he  remained  faithful  to  her,  even  returning  in  due 
time  from  a  visit  he  paid  to  his  own  people. 

The  statement  that  the  Indians  are  cannibals  is  unfounded 
in  fact.  It  has  happened  in  some  cases  that  prisoners  were  de 
voured,  and  it  may  happen  now  on  rare  occasions  to  satisfy 
vengeful  hate.  Formerly  Indians  have  been  known  in  the  height 
of  their  fury  to  tear  an  enemy's  heart  out  of  his  body  and  devour 


108  David  Zeisberger's  History 

it  raw.  When  an  Indian  nation  wishes  to  excite  another  to 
war,  it  sometimes  happens  that  they  send  one  or  more  prisoners 
to  such  a  nation  with  the  words,  "We  send  you  this  prisoner 
to  make  some  broth,"  and  frequently  gain  their  aim  in  this 
fashion.  The  prisoner,  however,  is  not  devoured  but  executed 
without  mercy.  There  is  no  rescuing  him  from  horrible  death. 

Captains,  when  about  to  go  to  war,  send  to  the  captains  of 
nations  or  towns  who  are  in  league  with  them  a  piece  of  to 
bacco  to  smoke,  thus  notifying  them  that  they  themselves  will 
soon  follow.  By  this  they  intend  that  the  captains  shall  smoke 
their  pipes  and  consider  seriously  whether  they  will  take  part 
in  .the  war  or  not.  One  chief  about  to  visit  another  will,  sim 
ilarly,  send  him  a  piece  of  tobacco  with  the  message  that  he 
shall  smoke,  look  in  a  certain  direction  and  in  due  time  he  will 
see  the  sender  coming.  This  is  done  to  make  sure  that  the 
visitor  will  find  the  chief  whom  he  wishes  to  visit  at  home. 

The  last  war  of  the  nations  was  between  the  Six  Nations, 
the  Delawares  and  Shawanose  and  the  Cherok'ees,  the  latter 
pitted  against  the  rest.  This  war  continued  many  years  until 
peace  was  concluded  in  I768,272  as,  a  few  years  before,  peace 
had  been  made  between  the  Six  Nations  and  the  Catabe-Nation27 ! 
through  the  mediation  of  Sir  William  Johnson  at  Albany.  Con 
cerning  earlier  Indian  wars  nothing  is  known  and  since  that 
time  war  with  the  whites  has  engaged  the  attention  of  all  the 
Indian  nations. 

With  the  Delawares  the  following  nations  are  in  league: 
The  Mahikander,274  the  Shawanose,  the  Cherokees,  the  Twich- 
twes,275  the  Wawiachtanos,276  the  Kikapus,277  the  Wiondats,  the 
Tuckachschas,278  the  Chipuways,  Ottawas,  the  Putewoataimen279 
and  the  Kaskaski.2SO  The  two  last  named  dwell  along  the 
Wabash.281 

The  Shawanose,  who  formerly  lived  in  Florida  and  have 
ever  been  a  warlike  people,  had  a  war  with  the  Moshkos.282  The 
latter  were  the  stronger  and  the  Shawanose  were  reduced  to  a 
few  remnants.  The  survivors  left  their  country,  came  as  fu 
gitives  up  the  Ohio  to  the  Susquehanna.  [Susquehannah].  They 
moved  from  place  to  place  until  they  fell  in  with  a  strong  party 
of  Delawares.  With  these  they  entered  into  negotiations,  stat- 


North  American  Indians.  109 

ing  that  they  were  fugitives  and  wished  to  settle  in  the  country 
of  the  Delawares  and  under  their  protection.  The  Delawares 
adopted  them  as  grandchildren,  even  as  had  been  done  with  the 
Mahikanders.  The  Shawanose  now  call  the  Delawares  grand- 
lather.  2"'  They  lived  for  some  time  in  the  Forks  of  the  Dela 
ware  and  then  moved  to  Wajomick284  on  the  Susquehanna. 
Having  increased  considerably  in  numbers  they  moved  to  the 
western  branch  of  that  river  and,  later,  as  they  deemed  them 
selves  secure  in  the  alliance  with  the  Delawares  and  sufficiently 
strong  to  venture  it,  to  the  Ohio  above  Great  Island.285  Here 
they  commenced  hostilities  against  the  Cherokees.  The  latter 
pursued  often  following  the  Shawanose  into  the  country  of  the 
Delawares.  Unwittingly  they  killed  some  of  the  latter.  This 
brought  on  a  new  war  between  the  Delawares  and  the  Cherokees, 
beginning,  as  indicated,  by  the  Shawanose  and  not  ended  until 
the  year  1768.  The  Shawanose  lived  for  several  years  on  the 
Ohio  near  Kittanniink,286  whence  they  moved  to  Logstown,287 
twenty  miles  below  Pittsburg,  and  from  there  to  the  Sioto, 
whence  the  Americans  drove  them  and  entirely  destroyed  their 
settlements,  for  the  reason  that  they  were  guilty  of  constant 
attack  on  the  settlements  of  the  whites  and  of  many  murderous 
acts.288  After  this  the  Shawanose  turned  westward. 

The  Delawares  have  not  engaged  in  war  with  any  of  the 
nations  named  except  the  Cherokees.  Because  these  nations 
were  in  league  with  the  Delawares,  and  called  each  other 
brothers  (the  Shawanose  excepted),  the  Cherokees  made  peace 
with  the  Delawares,  calling  them  grandfather,  all  these  nations 
followed  them  and  entered  into  alliance  with  them,  and  the 
Shawanose,  having  been  adopted  by  the  Delawares  are  so  se 
cure  that  no  nation  will  venture  to  attack  them,  even  though  they 
are  a  cruel,  warlike  people. 

It  appears  from  what  has  been  stated  that  the  Delawares 
have  powerful  connections,  being  in  league  with  most  nations. 
Had  the  Delawares  allowed  themselves  to  be  enticed  in  the 
present  war,  America's  experiences  would  have  been  different. 
As  these  remained  neutral,  the  nations  in  league  with  them  did 
the  same,  except  the  Shawanose,  who  have  nearly  cut  off  their 
relations  with  "the  grandfather."  The  Delawares  are  grand- 


110  David  Zeisberger's  History 

father  to  all  these  nations  and  they  are  the  grandchildren.  The 
Cherokees  live  on  the  east  side  of  the  Ohio,  in  the  mountains 
opposite  North  Carolina.  The  Chipuways289  are  a  numerous 
people  on  the  north  coast  of  Lake  Erie.  The  Ottawas  and  the 
Putewoataimen  live  to  the  west  of  Lake  Erie,  but  a  great  way 
beyond  it.  The  Twichttwees  and  the  Wawiachtanos  dwell  be 
tween  the  Sioto  and  the  Wabash  and  the  Kikapus,  the  Moshkos 
and  Tuckachschas  on  both  sides  of  the  Wobash,  yet  a  consider 
able  distance  from  one  another. 

The  country  through  which  the  Wobash  [Wabash]  flows  is 
very  level.  Here  are  great  plains  producing  nothing  but  grass 
as  in  the  flats  of  Wajomik.290  In  a  journey  of  some  days  you 
meet  with  neither  hill,  tree  nor  thicket.  Upon  these  plains  herds 
of  buffalo  are  seen  grazing,  comprising  sometimes  of  hundreds 
of  head.  The  banks  of  the  Ohio  are  subject  to  frequent  inunda 
tion,  especially  in  the  spring  when  the  snow  melts  in  the  north. 
For  several  miles  on  either  side  of  the  river  the  country  will 
at  such  a  time  be  under  water.  Should  Indians  be  hunting  at 
this  time,  they  find  it  necessary  to  be  careful  of  their  canoes,  lest 
they  should  suffer  want  or  death,  for  once  the  water  overflows 
the  banks,  it  runs  out  many  miles  and  there  is  no  escape  with 
out  a  canoe.  Buffalo  and  other  game  perish  in  large  numbers 
in  such  floods.  Where  there  is  a  slight  elevation  animals  gather 
by  the  hundreds,  until  the  waters  recede.  In  that  region  there 
is  a  great  salt-lick,  much  visited  by  buffalo  and  other  game.291 
There  bones  and  teeth  of  elephants  of  considerable  size  have  been 
found,  both  by  whites  and  Indians.  In  earlier  times  there  must 
have  been  elephants  in  this  region.  Whether  they  were  exter 
minated  by  the  Indians  or  perished  in  some  other  way,  it  is  not 
easy  to  determine. 

The  (Wiondats),  or  Hurons,  have  been  given  the  latter 
name  because  formerly  they  lived  near  Lake  Huron,  (the  Dela- 
wares  call  them  Delamattenos),291i  they  call  the  Delaware  nation 
their  cousin,  and  the  latter  in  turn  call  them  uncle.  With  these 
the  Delawares  have  never  had  a  war  but  have  always  been  good 
friends.  Between  the  Delawares  and  the  Six  Nations  there  has 
never  been  real  friendship,  because  the  latter  secured  peace  in 
no  straight-forward  manner.  Recognizing  that  the  Delawares 


North  American  Indians.  Ill 

were  too  powerful  for  them,  they  pretended  that  it  would  not 
be  good  for  the  nations  to  wage  war  continually  and  that  one 
nation  ought  to  be  the  woman  and  that  nation  must  be  the 
Delawares,  as  they  were  the  greatest  warriors.  Afterward  they 
alleged  that  they  had  conquered  the  Delawares.  In  the  war 
which  began  in  1755  and  lasted  until  the  sixties  the  Delawares 
challenged  the  Six  Nations  on  the  occasion  of  a  Treaty  in  Pitts- 
burg,  but  the  latter  returned  no  answer.292 

Of  late  years  the  Delawares  have  amazingly  increased  in 
reputation  through  the  wise  management  of  the  Chief  Neta- 
watwes.  This  man  spared  no  pains  to  gain  the  friendship  of 
all  the  nations.  He  sent  frequent  embassies  to  the  grandchildren, 
and  showed  himself  a  true  grandfather.  When  the  Delawares 
sent  a  message  to  the  allied  nations,  the  speech  began  with  each 
string  or  belt  of  wampum,  "Grand-children ;"  the  nations  ad 
dress  the  Delawares,  ''Grandfather."  The  Wyondats  and  Six 
Nations  are  addressed  "Uncle,"  and  the  Europeans,  "Brother. " 
The  speech  is  generally  addressed  directly  to  the  chief,  though 
meant  for  the  whole  nation. 

The  nations  generally  addressed  the  French  as  "Father," 
when  the  latter  were  in  possession  of  Canada  and  had  inter 
course  with  them.  The  same  appellation  was  transferred  to  the 
English  when  they  conquered  Canada.  In  the  other  colonies 
Europeans  and  Indians  called  one  another  "Brothers."  This 
practice  was  followed  by  Sir  William  Johnson. 

Indians  explain  the  origin  of  Nations  and  their  names  by 
saying,  and  this  not  unlikely,  that  the  inhabitants  of  towns  or 
districts  named  themselves  according  to  the  places  where  they 
dwelt.  Thus  even  at  the  present  time  Delawares  who  live  in 
Goschachgiink  are  commonly  called  Goschachgiwak,  that  is 
Goschachgithlser  —  "people  of  Goschachgiink." 

A  message  sent  or  a  speech  in  council  goes  or  is  delivered 
in  the  name  of  the  three  tribes,  signifying  the  three  chiefs.  The 
Turtle  tribe  is  named  first,  next  the  Wolf  Tribe  and  the  Turkey 
Tribe  last. 

When  a  message  is  returned,  not  having  been  accepted,  the 
belt  or  string  of  wampum  that  has  been  rejected  is  thrown  on 
the  floor  of  the  council  house,  after  it  has  been  announced  why 


112  Dar-k*  Zeisberger's  History 

the  message  was  nor  welcome.  The  refusal  is  considered  a  great 
affront  and  no  one  of  the  chiefs  or  counsellors  will  touch  the 
rejected  wampum  belt  or  string.  This  lies  on  the  floor,  the 
men  of  the  Council  leaving  the  place,  until  some  old  woman 
removes  it. 

Concerning  usages  and  ceremonies  connected  with  the  elec 
tion  of  a  chief  the  following  should  have  been  added.  If  a 
chief  of  the  Turtle  Tribe  is  to  be  elected  his  own  tribe  does  not 
choose  him  but  the  chiefs  of  the  other  two  tribes  do  this. 
Similarly,  if  a  chief  of  the  Wolf  or  Turkey  Tribe  were  to  be 
elected,  the  tribe  concerned  would  have  no  part  in  the  election. 
The  election  is  conducted  in  the  following  manner.  As  each 
tribe  lives  in  a  town  of  its  own.  the  two  chiefs,  upon  whom  the 
election  devolves,  meet  with  their  counsellors  and  people  at  an 
appointed  place,  and  after  all  necessary  preparations  have  been 
made  —  some  thirty  belts  of  wampum  are  required  and  a  num 
ber  of  speeches  arranged  for  —  they  move  in  a  procession  toward 
the  town  where  the  election  is  to  take  place.  The  two  chiefs 
head  the  procession  and  one  of  them  sings  along  the  whole  way 
the  speeches  that  are  tc  be  made  to  the  chief  about  to  be 
elected,  singing  in  a  tone  used  on  this  and  no  other  occasion. 
Thus  they,  still  singing,  enter  the  town  where  the  chief  is  to  be 
elected.  They  find  everything  prepared  for  the  occasion,  enter 
the  council  house  at  the  east  end,  pass  on  one  side  the  two  or 
three  fires  that  have  been  made  and  sit  down  on  the  other  side. 
Xext  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  enter,  welcome  the  guests  by 
shaking  their  hands  and  sit  down  on  the  other  side  of  the  fire. 
One  of  the  two  chiefs,  in  a  singing  tone,  opens  the  proceedings 
by  explaining  the  object  of  the  meeting,  condoling  with  the  chief 
elect,  wipes  the  tears  from  his  eyes,  clears  his  ears  and  throat, 
removes  all  sorrow  on  account  of  the  departed  chief  from  his 
heart  and  comforts  him.  Xext  he  declares  him  to  be  chief  and 
formally  fills  the  office  made  vacant  by  the  death  of  the  former 
chief.  He  then  exhorts  the  young  people  to  be  obedient  to  their 
new  chief,  whenever  he  shall  require  their  assistance,  and  ex 
plains  to  them  how  they  are  to  conduct  themselves  toward  the 
chief.  The  speech  is  confirmed  by  means  of  two  belts  of 


North  American  Indians.  113 

wampum  and  the  speaker  receives  an  answer,  a  solemn  promise, 
from  the  young  people  that  they  will  fulfill  their  obligation.  He 
likewise  addresses  the  wife  of  the  new  chief,  who  is  present 
attended  by  several  women,  and  admonishes  her  to  be  obedient 
to  the  chief.  This  is  confirmed  by  means  of  a  belt  and  the 
woman,  in  the  name  of  all  the  women,  promises  obedience. 
Finally,  he  lays  before  the  chief  the  duties  of  his  office,  regard 
ing1  the  preservation  or  re-establishment  of  peace,  admonishing 
him  not  to  meddle  in  the  affairs  of  war  and  to  keep  his  people 
from  it.  to  continually  attend  to  the  welfare  of  his  nation  and 
to  hear  willingly  the  remonstrances  of  the  people  in  case  he 
should  commit  a  fault.  All  this  is  intoned  and  the  belts  given 
in  confirmation  are  laid  before  the  chief.  He  promises  to  act 
in  strict  conformity  to  these  injunctions. 

The  new  chief  thus  enters  upon  his  office  by  consent  of  the 
tribe  and  whole  nation.  He  is  placed,  therefore,  in  a  position 
of  influence.  He  is  loved  and  honored  of  his  people  and  aided 
by  them  in  his  undertakings.  Whoever  obtains  the  office  of 
chief  in  any  other  way  is  not  respected.  This  is  the  case  with 
the  successor  of  Netawatwes,  who  was  chosen  by  Europeans 
prominent  in  Pittsburg.203  Such  a  one  amounts  to  nothing  and 
is  held  in  no  greater  esteem  than  any  other  Indian.  He  can 
accomplish  nothing,  for  neither  the  other  chiefs  nor  the  coun 
sellors  nor  the  people  are  with  him.  Thus  the  Delawares  at 
present  have  no  real  ruler,  to  whom  they  are  devoted  and  from 
whom  they  are  willing  to  take  counsel.  This  state  of  affairs 
will  continue  until  they  elect  a  chief  in  accordance  with  their 
own  usages. 

If  a  chief  has  made  mistakes,  he  may  be  admonished  by  the 
whole  people  and  is  obliged  to  give  attention  to  them.  For 
any  grave  fault,  which  may  prove  injurious  to  the  common 
wealth  —  for  instance  if  he  suffers  the  young  people  to  commit 
outrages  or  murders,  which  may  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  the 
whole  nation  and  involve  it  in  war,  or  if  he  should  not  do  any 
thing  to  prevent  such  misdemeanors  in  the  first  instance  —  he  is 
reprimanded  by  the  two  other  chiefs,  with  the  same  ceremonious 
solemnity  used  at  his  installation,  must  be  willing  to  take  the 
8 


114  David  Zeisberger's  History 

reprimand,  and  must  promise  to  fulfill  his  duty  better  in  the 
future. 

The  name  Delawares  undoubtedly  has  its  origin  with  the 
Europeans,  for  neither  they  themselves  nor  other  nations  use 
this  name.  They  call  themselves  the  Lenni-Lenape  Indians 
or  Woapanachke,  that  is  people  living  towards  the  rising  of 
the  sun,  having  formerly  inhabited  the  eastern  coast  of  North 
America.  It  is  possible  that  the  word  Delawares  should  have 
been  applied  to  the  nation ;  because  the  Unami  Tribe,  which 
lived  nearest  the  sea,  uses  the  word  'ndellowen  very  much.  This 
word,  meaning  "I  say,''  being  a  verb,  appears  frequently  and 
in  many  forms  in  the  conversation  of  the  people.  The  first 
Europeans,  not  understanding  the  language  and  hearing  this 
word  very  often  may  have  made  Delaware  out  of  it  and  called 
the  people  thus.  The  Indians  themselves  believe  this  to  be  the 
explanation,  though  it  is  possible  that  the  Europeans  have 
another,  of  which  I  am  not  aware.20* 

If  a  party  of  Indians  have  spent  a  night  in  the  woods,  it 
may  be  easily  known,  not  only  by  the  structure  of  their  sleep 
ing  huts  but  also  by  their  marks  on  the  trees,  to  what  tribe 
they  belong.  For  they  always  leave  a  mark  behind  made  either 
with  red  pigment  or  charcoal.  Such  marks  are  understood  by 
the  Indians  who  know  how  to  read  their  meaning.  Some  mark 
ings  point  out  the  places  where  a  company  of  Indians  have  been 
hunting,  showing  the  number  of  nights  they  spent  there,  the 
number  of  deer,  bears  and  other  game  killed  during  the  hunt. 
The  warriors  sometimes  paint  their  own  deeds  and  adventures, 
the  number  of  prisoners  or  scalps  taken,  the  number  of  troops 
they  commanded  and  how  many  fell  in  battle. 

If  two  nations  are  engaged  in  war  and  the  warriors  of  one 
commit  some  murderous  act,  it  is  not  uncommon  that  they  leave 
the  hatchet  in  the  head  of  the  victim  who  has  been  scalped  or 
lay  a  war-club,  painted  red,  upon  the  body  of  the  victim.  This 
is  a  formal  challenge,  in  consequence  of  which,  a  captain  of 
the  insulted  party  takes  up  the  weapon  of  the  murderers  and 
hastens  into  their  country  to  be  avenged.  He  will  do  much 
the  same  thing,  leaving  his  weapon  upon  the  murdered,  and 


North  American  Indians.  115 

endeavor  to  bring  back  a  scalp  or  several  scalps  to  show  that 
he  has  avenged  the  rights  of  his  nation. 

Across  the  Mississippi  there  lives  a  nation  called  the  Su.295 
They  live  along  the  river  Sti  far  beyond  the  Illinois,  where  there 
are  vast  plains  without  trees  and  on  which  wild  goats,  buffalo 
and  other  game  graze.  As  there  is  no  wood,  the  Indians  burn 
dried  buffalo  manure.  For  the  winter  they  provide  themselves 
with  peat,  which  they  dry  with  grass.  Their  utensils  they  make 
of  clay  and  burn  them,  wherever  they  may  be,  for  they  travel 
from  place  to  place  following  game.  Their  weapons  are  the 
bow  and  arrow.  Water  being  scarce  on  the  plains,  they  catch 
the  dew  for  cooking  and  drinking  purposes.  For  this  purpose 
they  use  large  sponges  that  grow  on  the  rocks  in  the  rivers. 
This  I  have  been  told  by  an  Englishman  who  lived  sometime 
in  that  country.  These  Indians  trade  with  the  Spaniards.  I  have 
heard  from  various  sources  that  the  further  west  one  goes  the 
more  extensive  are  the  plains. 

Indians  usually  treat  one  another  with  kindness  and  civility 
and  in  their  bearing  toward  one  another  are  modest.  They  are 
communicative  but  thoughtful.  Of  empty  compliments  they 
know  nothing.  In  meeting  it  is  customary  to  shake  hands,  greet 
one  another  with  the  friendly  title  of  Father,  Older  or  Younger 
Brother,  Uncle,  Cousin,  Grand  Son,  Grandfather  and  say  "I 
am  glad  to  see  you."  Sometimes  all  this  is  repeated  when  the 
guests  have  been  sometime  in  the  house.  Expression  of  greet 
ing  through  others  is  hardly  customary,  occasionally  a  gift  is 
sent  by  way  of  greeting.  Greetings  are  expressed  in  all  sin 
cerity.  If  sentiments  do  not  correspond  to  words  and  forms, 
the  latter  are  dispensed  with.  If  warriors,  going  to  war  or 
coming  from  war,  when  the  murderous  spirit  is  on  them  greet 
one  (I  will  not  say  an  Indian,  for  that  were  nothing  unusual, 
but  a  white  person)  one  may  certainly  believe  to  possess  their 
favor  and  good  grace  and  need  fear  no  harm,  for  if  they  have 
the  least  feeling  against  anyone,  they  will  use  no  form  of  greet 
ing.  This  I  know  from  frequent  experience.  An  Indian  carries 
pouch  and  pipe  with  him  wherever  he  goes,  for  they  a're  indis 
pensable.  For  state  occasions  they  may  have  an  otter  skin 


116  David  Zeisberger's  History 

pouch  or  a  beaver-pouch  or  one  decorated  with  coral,  made  by 
the  women.  Sometimes  they  have  a  buffalo  horn,  from  which 
a  pouch,  made  possibly  of  tanned  deer-skin,  depends.  In  the 
pouches  they  carry  tobacco,  fire  materials,  knife  and  pipe.  Sumac 
is  generally  mixed  with  tobacco  or  sumac  smoked  without  to 
bacco,  for  but  few  can  stand  smoking  pure  tobacco.  Their  com 
mon  conversation  turns  upon  hunting  or  the  news  of  the  day. 
Matter  that  has  no  foundation  in  fact  may  be  drawn  into  con 
versation,  and  even  though  all  may  be  aware  of  this,  the  narra 
tion  continues  uninterrupted.  They  may  laugh  now  and  again 
but  they  will  listen  attentively.  No  one  interrupts  another. 
When  one  has  finished  another  begins.  They  never  put  any  one 
publicly  to  blush ;  they  are  polite  to  each  other  and  enjoy  being 
politely  treated.  They  like  to  be  regarded  as  worthy  people 
even  though  they  may  be  the  opposite.  They  are  pleased  to 
know  that  they  are  liked.  When  a  guest  comes  into  a  house, 
food  is  placed  before  him ;  that  comes  before  anything  else. 
If  the  guests  are  from  a  distance  and  very  good  friends,  the 
whole  kettle  of  food  is  set  before  them,  they  are  given  dishes  and 
spoons  and  allowed  to  help  themselves  first  to  as  much  as  they 
wish.  The  guests  having  partaken  of  the  food,  pass  the  kettle 
back  to  the  people  of  the  house.  They  live  very  simply.  Meat, 
corn,  gruel,  corn-bread,  are  the  principal  articles  of  diet.29fi  In 
lieu  of  meat,  various  dishes  are  prepared  with  corn,  or  Sopan, 
milk  and  butter  are  used.  They  like  to  discuss  affairs  of  state 
and  communicate  their  opinions.  In  fact  they  are  more  ready 
to  discuss  such  matters  in  course  of  visits  than  in  the  Council 
House,  for  there  they  prefer  to  let  the  older  people  speak.  Oc 
casionally  visits  are  made  with  the  purpose  of  discovering  the 
opinions  of  others ;  in  a  chief's  home  all  manner  of  reports, 
true  and  false,  furnish  material  for  discussion.  The  women 
speak  of  their  work,  their  plantations,  the  pouches,  bags,  baskets, 
carrying  bands  they  have  made,  many  of  them  though  not  all 
smoking  tobacco.  Stories  are  carried  by  women  from  house  to 
house;  they  are  so  often  manufactured  that  if  men,  having 
listened  attentively  to  some  tale,  hear  that  it  originated  with  a 
woman  they  will  give  it  no  credit  until  confirmed  by  some  more 
reliable  authoritv. 


North  American  Indians.  117 

Trade  with  Europeans  is  carried  on  usually  on  the  basis 
of  fixed  price,  both  as  concerns  goods  and  pelts.  The  Indians 
trade  their  deer,  beaver,  otter,  raccoon,  fox-skins,  wild-cat-skins 
and  others  for  goods  which  the  traders  often  take  a  consider 
able  distance  into  the  Indian  country.  If  they  can  deceive  the 
whites,  they  do  so  with  pleasure,  for  it  is  not  easily  done.  They 
are  delighted,  also,  if  they  succeed  in  purloining  something. 
They  are  fond  of  buying  on  credit,  promising  to  pay  when  they 
return  from  the  chase.  The  traders  may  be  willing  to  take  the 
risk,  hoping  to  control  all  that  they  catch.  But  if  the  Indians, 
on  their  return,  find  other  traders  in  the  country,  they  barter 
with  them  and  trouble  themselves  no  longer  over  their  creditors. 
If  the  latter  remind  them  of  their  debts,  they  are  offended,  for 
to  pay  old  debts  seems  to  them  to  be  giving  goods  away  for 
nothing.  Usually  traders  learn  from  their  losses  to  give  nothing 
or  but  little  on  credit.  This  is  the  safest  course  and  there  is 
no  danger  in  arousing  the  enmity  of  the  Indians.  When  war 
breaks  out  the  traders  are  the  first  in  danger,  not  only  of  losing 
their  property  but  also  for  their  lives.  When  the  Indians  sus 
pect  a  war  approaching,  they  keep  it  secret  and  take  as  many 
goods  upon  credit  as  they  can  get ;  as  soon  as  the  war  breaks 
out  all  debts  are  cancelled. 

The  Indians  trade  much  among  themselves,  especially  the 
women,  who  deal  in  rum,  which  they  sell  at  exorbitant  prices, 
which  occasions  much  disorder.  Indian  traders  usually  demand 
high  prices,  knowing  well  that  unless  the  buyer  were  in  great 
distress,  or  fully  intent  upon  closing  the  bargain,  he  would 
rather  not  deal  with  them.  Indians  when  really  anxious  to  ob 
tain  anything  will  pay  almost  any  price.  If  they  are  in  need 
of  corn  they  will  give  goods  or  pelts  in  exchange  for  it.  Fre 
quently,  the  chiefs  have  prohibited  the  sale  of  strong  drink  in 
their  towns,  but  it  is  always  brought  in  in  some  manner,  against 
which  the  chiefs  are  powerless  to  protest.  For  instance,  they 
may  appoint  a  sacrifice  of  rum,  in  which  nothing  but  rum  is 
used.  This  the  chiefs  cannot  hinder  owing  to  established  custom. 
When  once  the  Indians,  who  gather  in  large  numbers  for  such 
a  sacrifice,  have  tasted  the  strong  drink  but  have  not  satisfied 
themselves,  they  will  go  to  the  old  women  who  deal  in  liquor. 


118  David  Zeisberger's  History 

The  latter  will  often  obtain  everything  that  an  Indian  owns 
except  his  Breech-clout.  For  their  skins  the  Indians  get  from 
the  traders  powder,  lead,  rifle-barrelled  guns — for  other  weapons 
they  do  not  value  —  blankets,  strouds,  linen,  shirts,  cotton, 
callemanco,297  knives,  needles,  thread,  woolen  and  silken  ribbon, 
wire  and  kettles  of  brass,  silver  buckles,  —  these  are  considered 
as  valuable  as  gold  and  with  them  they  can  purchase  almost 
anything  —  bracelets,  thimbles,  rings,  combs,  mirrors,  axes, 
hatchets  and  other  tools. 

If  the  young  are  at  home  and  not  on  the  chase  hardly  a 
night  passes  without  a  dance.  The  women,  who  always  follow 
the  men,  dancing  in  a  circle,  act  with  decency  and  becoming 
modesty,  as  if  they  were  engaged  in  the  most  serious  business. 
Neither  laughing  nor  levity  are  to  be  noticed  and  they  never 
speak  a  word  to  a  man,  for  this  would  injure  their  character. 
They  neither  jump  nor  skip,  but  move  one  foot  after  the  other 
slightly  forwards  then  backwards,  yet  so  as  to  advance  gradually. 
The  men  shout  and  leap  and  stamp  with  such  violence  that  the 
ground  trembles  under  their  feet.  Whatever  man  acts  in  the 
oddest  and  most  ridiculous  manner  is  the  most  regarded.  They 
dance  in  a  circle  around  the  fire.  Often  in  the  midst  of  the 
dance  they  will  all  hold  their  heads  forward  over  the  fire,  stand 
bowed  or  leap  and  stamp,  singing  all  the  time ;  suddenly  they 
stand  erect  again  and  move  forward.  They  make  all  manner 
of  unusual  movements  to  show  their  agility  and  skill.  They 
have  no  other  music  than  the  drum.  When  one  dance  has  been 
finished  the  one  who  beats  the  drum  sings  and  beats  until  another 
begins.  There  is  always  a  leader  whom  all  watch  carefully  and 
follow.  They  have  various  kinds  of  dances,  some  acquired  from 
the  other  nations. 

The  young  men  often  wrestle  to  test  their  strength.  The 
one  thrown  is  not  angered  but  admits  the  other  to  be  his  master. 
Another  mode  of  testing  strength  is  in  trying  to  lift  some  large 
stone,  or  throwing  a  stone  of  considerable  size  the  greatest 
distance  possible. 

Nine-pins,  ball-playing  and  cards  they  have  learned  from 
the  whites.  The  Indian  game  of  dice  is  the  most  popular  of 


North  American  Indians.  119 

amusements.  They  may  devote  days  in  succession  to  it,  always 
gambling  on  the  throwing.  Among  the  Mingoes  I  have  ob 
served  that  two  towns  brought  together  goods,  blankets,  strowds, 
shirts,  linen  and  played  for  them.  In  this  case  the  game  lasted 
eight  days.  The  dice  are  placed  in  a  dish,  lifted  up  and  thrown 
forcibly  on  the  ground.  The  people  of  the  two  towns  met  daily 
during  the  period  named  and  every  inhabitant  of  each  town 
threw  the  dice  once.  This  done  they  parted  for  the  day  and 
each  party  separately  offered  a  sacrifice  in  the  evening.  In  con 
nection  with  the  sacrifice  they  had  their  special  ceremonies,  con 
sisting  in  a  man  going  several  times  'round  a  fire,  throwing 
tobacco  into  it  and  singing  a  song.  Afterwards  the  whole  com 
pany  danced.  This  continued  for  eight  days.  When  the  win 
ners  bore  away  the  spoil  in  triumph. 

The  boys  exercise  by  shooting  at  a  mark  with  bow  and 
arrow.  They  may  throw  something  into  the  air  and  shoot  at 
it,  the  one  hitting  the  object  being  regarded  as  a  good  marks 
man.  As  soon  as  they  are  able  to  run  about  they  learn  to  use 
the  bow  and  arrow.  When  they  grow  older  they  shoot  pigeons, 
squirrels,  birds  and  even  raccoon  with  their  bows  and  arrows. 

Two  comrades  who  have  been  reared  together  or  have  be 
come  attached  to  one  another  will  be  very  close  and  constant 
companions.  If  one  goes  on  a  journey  or  to  hunt  the  other  will, 
if  possible,  accompany  him.  It  seems  almost  impossible  for 
either  of  them  to  live  without  the  other,  and  for  one  to  give  up 
his  companion,  as  may  be  necessary  when  one  becomes  a  Chris 
tian,  is  very  hard.  Often  such  friends  will  make  a  covenant  with 
one  another  to  remain  together  and  share  alike  possessions  and 
knowledge.298  If  they  go  to  war  together  and  one  perishes  the 
other  will  fight  desperately  to  avenge  him,  accounting  his  own 
life  as  nothing. 

In  traveling  in  companies  they  are  very  companionable  and 
follow  some  recognized  leader.  The  younger  element,  on  such 
journeys,  engages  in  the  hunt  and  if  deer  or  bear  is  shot,  the 
carcass  is  brought  to  camp  and  laid  at  the  fire  pf  the  one  who 
is  held  to  be  leader.  He  divides  the  meat  among  all,  share  and 
share  alike.  No  complaint  is  ever  heard  that  one  has  received 
more  than  another.  If  the  chiefs  have  a  journey  to  make,  they 


120  David  Zeisberger's  History 

usually  take  some  of  the  younger  men  along,  who  supply  the 
larder  during  the  journey  by  engaging  in  the  chase.  A  journey 
is  rarely  hurried  for  usually  it  makes  little  difference  whether 
they  arrive  at  their  destination  a  day  late  ur  not,  and  they  are 
everywhere  at  home  in  the  woods.  They  rarely  leave  camp 
early  in  the  morning,  wishing  always  to  have  a  good  meal  be 
fore  starting  and  sometimes  they  delay  to  mend  their  shoes. 
This  inconveniences  Europeans,  who  may  be  obliged  to  use  the 
Indians  as  guides  very  much,  especially  when  they  are  anxious 
to  reach  a  certain  place  at  a  certain  time.  It  is  best  policy,  how 
ever,  to  accommodate  oneself  to  the  Indians,  for  admonition  or 
remonstrance  easily  offends  them  and  makes  them  act  in  a  very 
contrary  manner. 

Indians  dislike  having  their  evil  conduct  or  acts  uncovered 
and  held  up  to  them.  They  are  able,  however,  in  subtle  fashion 
so  to  touch  upon  such  subjects  that  the  parties  concerned  will 
understand.  This  method  they  prefer,  not  wishing  to  offer  an 
open  affront,  it  has  happened  that  one  openly  accused  of  an 
evil  deed,  murder  or  the  like,  h:is,  in  desperation,  ended  his  life. 
They  sometimes  reveal  secret  things  by  means  of  dreams  they 
pretend  to  have  had  when  they  do  not  wish  to  show  from  what 
source  they  have  their  information.  Their  desires  and  inclina 
tions,  likewise,  they  will  reveal  through  pretended  dreams,  when 
they  are  ashamed  to  make  these  known  directly;  often  they 
achieve  their  purposes  in  this  manner.  Chiefs  occasionally  re 
ceive  a  secret  message  which  must  be  made  known.  They  will 
say  that  at  night,  while  sitting  by  the  fire,  some  one  rose  out 
of  the  earth,  handed  over  a  string  or  belt  of  wampum  and, 
whispering  the  message  in  their  ears,  disappeared  again  in  the 
earth.  In  this  fashion  a  message  may  go  a  hundred  miles  or 
more  under  the  earth,  coming  to  the  surface  where  it  was  in 
tended  that  it  should,  often  at  the  fire  of  a  chief  of  another  na 
tion.  This  happens  when  war  is  to  be  made  but  kept  secret 
for  the  time  being,  the  message,  therefore,  being  very  difficult 
TO  understand  for  any  but  the  chief. 

They  are  desirous  of  retaining  the  favor  and  friendship  of 
other  nations.  When  they  receive  visitors,  therefore,  the  latter 
are  shown  all  honor  and  entertained  in  the  best  possible  way,  in 


North  American  Indians.  121 

order  that  at  home  they  may  have  nothing  but  good  to  report. 
As  hospitality  is  generally  practiced,  strangers  are  everywhere 
well  received  and  suffer  no  want,  even  though  they  may  remain 
for  days,  or  weeks  or  months.  It  is  recognized  as  a  duty  to 
care  for  the  wants  of  a  guest  as  long  as  he  may  choose  to  remain 
and  even  to  give  him  provisions  for  the  journey  when  he  does 
make  up  his  mind  to  go. 

On  the  occasion  of  making  or  renewing  a  treaty  with  an 
other  nation  a  dance  very  different  from  the  ordinary  dance  is 
engaged  in.  The  dancers  join  hands  and  leap  in  a  circle  for 
some  time.  Suddenly  the  leader  lets  the  hand  of  one  of  his 
partners  go,  springs  forward  and  turns  around  several  times,  by 
which  he  draws  the  whole  company  round  so  as  to  be  enclosed 
by  them,  when  they  stand  close  together.  They  disengage  them 
selves  as  suddenly,  yet  keeping  hold  of  hands  during  all  the 
different  evolutions  and  changes  in  the  dance ;  this,  as  they  ex 
plain  it,  represents  the  chain  of  friendship ;  a  song,  used  only  at 
such  a  solemnity,  is  sung  by  all. 

The  War  Dance  is  very  wild  and  dreadful  to  behold.  One 
dancer  carries  his  hatchet,  another  a  long  knife,  another  a  large 
club,  a  fourth  a  cudgel.  These  they  brandish  in  the  air,  to  sig 
nify  how  they  intend  to  treat  or  have  treated  their  enemies, 
affecting  all  the  while  an  air  of  anger  and  fury.  The  Mingoes 
use  the  war  dance  even  in  times  of  peace  with  a  view  to  cele 
brate  their  heroic  deeds. 

They  regard  the  Europeans  as  a  peaceable  people,  created 
of  God  to  live  according  to  their  own  manners  and  customs, 
even  as  the  Indians  have  been  created  to  live  in  their  fashion, 
especially  to  sustain  themselves  by  means  of  the  chase.  They 
think  it  contrary  to  the  will  of  the  deity  to  adopt,  themselves, 
the  manner  of  living  peculiar  to  Europeans,  pointing  to  fish, 
animals  and  birds  as  each  having  their  characteristic  habits. 
Each  creature,  bear,  deer  or  other  animal,  continues  to  live  in 
its  own  way,  and  it  has  never  yet  been  observed  that  an  animal 
had  adopted  the  habits  of  another.  The  same  principle,  they 
hold,  applies  to  Indians  and  Europeans.  They  recognize  that 
the  Europeans  are  industrious  and  clever,  that  without  oppor- 


122  David  Zeisbergcr's  History 

t  unity  to  trade  with  them  their  position  would  be  without  many 
of  the  advantages  they  now  enjoy.  They  admit  that  the  whites 
are  very  ingenious,  because  of  their  ability  to  manufacture  a 
great  variety  of  things,  but  regard  their  manner  of  living  as 
wearisome  and  slavish  as  compared  with  their  own.  Their  own 
skill  as  hunters  and  woodsmen,  they  hold,  excels  that  of  the 
whites.  Towards  these  they  harbor  a  secret  enmity  which  they 
disguise  in  their  presence,  for  they  suspect  that  they  will  deprive 
them  of  their  land  and  drive  them  within  narrower  confines. 
This  suspicion  is  not  without  foundation.  Among  the  Dela- 
wares  this  dislike  has  been  moderated  through  long  intercourse 
with  the  whites,  yet  they  show  that  they  have  no  particular  love 
towards  them,  in  that  they  will  sell  their  lands  to  them  and  after 
these  have  become  inhabited  will  seek  to  drive  them  off  by 
starting  war. 

The  French  seem  to  possess  a  greater  share  of  the  good 
will  of  the  Indians  than  the  English,  being  regarded  by  the  In 
dians  as  being  more  akin  to  themselves,  probably  because  they 
enter  more  easily  into  the  Indian  manner  of  living  and  appear 
always  good-humored.  Indians  have  more  faith  in  the  French 
than  in  other  Europeans.  Since  the  late  war  with  England  all 
the  Americans  except  the  English  in  Canada,  otherwise  called 
by  the  Indians  Virginians,  are  known  as  Big  Knives  by  the  na 
tions  because,  from  the  beginning,  the  Indians  saw  them  and 
the  Governor  of  Virginia  on  all  occasions  of  negotiations  with 
the  Indians  wearing  long  swords.  Hence,  they  called  them 
Choanschican  and  the  Six  Nations  named  them  Assarigoa  that 
is  Big  Knives,  which  name  has  been  applied  to  all  Virginians 
and  has  been  extended  from  it  to  all  Americans  because  the  Vir 
ginians  in  this  war  negotiated  most  of  the  treaties  with  the 
Indians.-99 

Judged  by  the  mere  appearance  of  the  Indians  one  is  sur 
prised  how  modest  and  careful  they  are  in  relation  to  each  other 
and  imagines  that  the  whites,  if  they  were  as  free  a  people  and 
had  neither  government  nor  punishment  to  fear,  would  not  be 
as  united  and  peaceable  as  the  Indians  appear  to  be.  The  towns 
and  villages  of  the  latter  are  not  indeed  governed  by  force  or 
law.  Each  individual  is  at  liberty  to  live  where  he  pleases, 


North  American  Indians.  123 

moving  from  one  place  to  another  according  to  inclination,  yet 
they  generally  dwell  together  for  the  sake  of  the  help  they  can 
render  each  other  in  building  and  in  fencing  up  the  great  field 
where  all  may  plant  and  be  sure  that  their  pieces  of  ground  will 
not  be  molested  by  cattle.  If  they  have  a  good  chief  he  may 
be  very  useful  to  the  people,  for  under  him  they  believe  them 
selves  to  dwell  in  safety  as  it  is  his  business  to  keep  the  peace 
with  other  nations  and  order  among  his  own  people  in  so  far  as 
this  may  be  secured  among  the  Indians  who  are  a  free  people 
recognizing  neither  compulsion  nor  authority  to  punish.  By 
means  of  discretion  and  diplomacy  a  chief  may  accomplish  much. 
At  times  he  may  not  tell  his  counsellors,  much  less  the  people, 
what  his  ultimate  purposes  are,  for  fear  of  not  attaining  them. 
Moving  forward  step  by  step  he  may  gain  his  end.  Of  violence, 
murder  (except  in  drunkenness),  robbery,  theft,  one  rarely  hears 
among  the  Indians.  They  may  leave  all  they  have  caught  in 
the  chase  and  their  utensils  in  the  forest,  secured  indeed  against 
wild  animals  such  as  wolves  and  bear,  but  not  hidden  from  the 
Indians.  They  often  hang  their  things  to  trees  in  the  woods 
where  everyone  passing  by  may  see  them  and  leave  them  there 
for  days  and  weeks,  yet  they  are  never  molested.  Stolen  goods 
may  not  be  easily  concealed  among  them,  and  whoever  has  been 
guilty  of  theft  must  restore  or  repay  lest  a  horse  or  two  or  even 
his  gun,  which  is  an  Indian's  means  of  sustenance,  be  taken  from 
him  or  his  friends  summoned  to  make  good  the  injury,  even 
years  after  the  theft  has  been  committed.  The  latter  will  rather 
pay  than  be  much  and  often  called  upon  to  do  so. 

Few  houses  are  locked  when  the  people  go  out.  A  stick  is 
placed  against  the  door  on  the  outside  and  the  passerby  sees 
that  no  one  is  at  home  and  does  not  enter.  Each  one  is  free 
to  do  as  he  pleases  without  let  or  hindrance,  yet  he  will  rarely 
do  another  injury. 

Their  old  people,  even  though  they  are  only  able  to  crawl 
about  and  are  a  source  of  trouble  and  have  nothing  to  bequeath 
to  anyone,  are  faithfully  cared  for  by  their  friends  who  seem 
to  wish  that  their  lives  should  be  prolonged.  That  they  are 
unmerciful  and  insensible  towards  the  poor  and  needy  may  not 
be  said  of  them.  Even  strangers  who  have  no  friends  are 


124  David  Zeisberger's  History 

given  assistance.  A  poor  widow,  even  though  she  have  children, 
finds  it  possible  to  make  a  living  if  she  is  willing  to  work.  They 
pay  her  above  the  worth  of  her  services  in  food  and  clothing ; 
if  it  is  summer  she  may  work  on  the  plantations ;  in  winter  she 
may  prepare  wood  for  fire.  They  are  willing  to  help  the  poor 
but  always  expect  them  to  render  some  service  in  return.  It 
has  been  known  that  good  has  been  done  to  prisoners  con 
demned  to  death,  even  to  whites,  though  this  had  to  be  done 
secretly. 

A  few  negroes  are  found  among  the  Indians  having  been 
either  bought  from  the  whites  or  secured  as  prisoners.  These 
are  looked  upon  as  of  their  own  kind  and  allowed  full  liberty. 
Indians  and  negroes  intermarry  and  their  mulatto  children  are 
as  much  loved  as  children  of  pure  Indian  blood. 

They  are  fond  of  giving  when  they  can  expect  something 
in  return  and  of  doing  good  which  they  have  reason  to  hope 
may  be  returned.  They  easily  forget  the  good  that  has  been 
done,  but  if  they  have  been  cheated  they  never  forget  it.  If  a 
white  has  done  them  ever  so  many  favors,  helped  them  in  need, 
or  given  them  presents,  and  omits  an  opportunity  to  do  the 
like  only  once,  then  all  he  may  have  done  is  forgotten.  If  an 
Indian  takes  a  wife  and  dresses  her  generously  from  head  to  foot 
in  new  garments  she  will  indeed  be  glad  and  proud;  but  she 
will  more  readily  leave  him  than  if  he  had  given  her  little  or 
nothing,  for  in  that  case  she  would  still  be  in  expectation  of 
receiving  something. 

One  may  even  make  enemies  of  Indians  through  presents  if 
these  make  them  proud  and  one  does  not  continue  giving.  Oc 
casionally  when  a  respectable  present  has  been  given  the  donor 
is  slandered  in  order  that  he  may  not  expect  something  in 
return  from  the  recipient. 

They  are  able  to  control  their  desires  and  passions,  but 
once  given  free  rein  these  are  the  more  violent.  Overcome  with 
wrath,  they  at  once  think  upon  murder,  and  may,  in  the  heat 
of  passion,  do  something  for  which  they  will  later  feel  remorse. 

The  women  are  much  given  to  lying  and  gossiping.  They 
carry  e*vil  report  from  house  to  house.  As  long  as  they  are 
observed  they  appear  modest  and  without  guile.  All  the  wrongs 


North  American  Indians.  125 

or  which  they  are  guilty  are  done  in  secret.  That  adultery, 
theft,  lying,  cheating  are  terrible  vices  they  know,  having  learned 
it  from  their  ancestors  as  well  as  from  whites.  Fear  of  dis 
grace  keeps  them  from  open  wrong-doing  for  they  do  not  wish 
to  have  a  bad  name.  Secretly,  however,  they  are  given  to  all 
manner  of  vice.  Some  are  no  longer  sensitive  to  shame.  There 
are  traces  of  unnatural  sins  among  them,  hardly  known  to  any 
except  to  those  such  as  missionaries  who  have  learned  to  under 
stand  the  people  well.  Virtue  one  must  not  seek  among  the 
savages,  but  the  grace  of  God  is  able  to  accomplish  wonders 
among  them.  Not  all  are  equally  bad.  Some  among  them  are 
sensible  people  and  considerate,  who  act  reasonably  and  have  an 
eye  to  right  and  justice. 

I  had  no  faith  concerning  sorcery  attributed  to  them,  though 
I  have  lived  many  years  among  them,  thinking  it  all  to  be 
boasting  and  lying  on  their  part.  I  believed  the  Indians  were 
too  stupid  for  such  satanic  practices,  but  I  have  been  persuaded 
otherwise.  I  know  for  a  certainty  that  witchcraft  is  common 
among  them.  Those  who  make  great  pretention  to  skill  in  the 
dark  arts  know  the  least  about  them.  The  adepts  do  not  boast 
of  their  knowledge  for  fear  of  their  lives.  They  are  very  careful, 
even  under  the  influence  of  strong  drink,  not  to  draw  suspicion 
upon  themselves.  There  seem  to  be  Indians  who  have  the 
ability  to  bring  about  the  death  of  any  one  by  other  than  or 
dinary  means,  even  in  the  short  space  of  twenty- four  hours. 
This  they  do  without  the  use  of  poison,  which,  if  used,  might  be 
discovered  and  for  which  an  antidote  might  be  administered. 
Usually  two  or  three  or  more  agree  that  a  certain  person  shall 
die.  While  he  is  asleep  or  in  the  presence  of  others  they  some 
how  exert  their  evil  influence  upon  him.  The  effects  are  various. 
Sometimes  the  victim  falls  to  the  ground  immediately  in  con 
vulsions,  lies  for  a  time  as  dead,  then  recovers  consciousness  but 
soon  dies.  Sometimes  the  effects  are  not  noticeable  for  several 
days.  Occasionally  the  unfortunate  individuals  are  afflicted  with 
diseases,  from  which  there  is  no  recovery  for  years.  Hence,  it  is 
that  when  illness  cannot  be  accounted  for  on  natural  grounds, 
the  Indians  are  apt  to  believe  themselves  to  have  been  bewitched. 


126  David  Zeisberger's  History 

Accounts  of  illness  attributed  to  this   cause   are,   however,  not 
all  to  be  credited. 

By  the  Nantikoks800  the  Indians  have  been  instructed  in 
the  use  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  poison  called  Mattapassigan,  mean 
ing  poison.  The  Nantikoks  dwelt  formerly  in  Maryland,  along 
the  sea,  some  of  them  still  living  there,  and  later  moved  to 
Wajomick  along  the  Susquehannah,  finally  proceeding  further 
northward.  In  the  late  war  they  were  driven  out  with  the 
Six  Nations.  They  brought  knowledge  of  this  poison,  which 
carries  many  evils  with  it,  to  the  nations  and  also  to  the  Dela- 
wares.  What  it  is  and  whereof  it  is  made  I  am  unable  to  say, 
as  I  have  never  seen  it,  and  the  descriptions  vary.  Possibly  it 
is  prepared  in  different  ways.  It  is  said  not  to  be  baneful  in 
itself  and  to  receive  its  power  for  working  injury  through  witch 
craft.  It  is  declared  to  be  capable  of  infecting  whole  townships 
and  tribes  with  disorders  as  pernicious  as  the  plague.  With  its 
use  the  sorcerers  are  said  to  be  able  to  remove  a  person  though 
he  may  be  several  hundred  miles  away.  The  Delawares  have  en 
deavored  to  extirpate  the  shocking  evil.  Their  efforts  extending 
over  two  years  were  in  vain,  for  those  possessed  of  the  knowl 
edge  of  its  uses  kept  the  knowledge  secret.  The  Nantikoks  who 
were  the  wretched  inventors  of  this  poison  and  its  arts,  have 
nearly  destroyed  their  own  nation  by  it.  Its  use  is  rendered 
efficacious  by  a  company  of  murderous  sorcerers  uniting  in  the 
same  design.  Its  effects  are  the  more  terrible,  because  it  is  used 
not  only  in  connection  with  individuals  but  whole  communities. 
In  their  practices  the  sorcerers,  except  in  case  of  the  poison 
described,  seem  to  use  no  Beson  but  a  little  piece  of  an  old 
blanket  or  something  else.  This  they  rub  in  their  hands  until 
formed  into  a  little  ball.  Naming  the  one  who  is  marked  for 
death,  they  throw  this  ball  at  him,  saying  that  he  shall  die. 
They  call  this  shooting  the  witchball.301  Any  person  wishing  to 
get  another  whom  he  hates  out  of  the  way  will  hire  a  sorcerer 
or  several  of  them  to  do  it,  paying  them  in  wampum.  The 
Indians  say  that  their  poison  and  witchcraft  have  no  effect  upon 
the  white  people  because  they  use  so  much  salt  in  their  victuals. 
But  this  is  merely  a  pretense  as  there  are  instances  of  Europeans 
having  fallen  victims  to  their  skill  in  poisoning. 


North  American  Indians.  127 

Warriors,  and  especially  Captains,  procure  a  beson  thought 
to  be  capable  of  preserving  them  from  arrow  and  ball.  In  the 
year  1774  when  a  war  had  broken  out  between  the  Shawanose 
and  the  whites,  the  latter  had  their  war-beson  carried  about 
among  the  ranks  upon  a  pole,  in  a  battle  they  fought  with  the 
whites  on  the  Canhawa.301%  But  the  Beson  bearer  himself  was 
shot,  the  whole  Indian  army  routed  and  the  Beson  fell  a  pray  to 
the  conqueror. 

Another  sort  of  deceivers  are  called  by  them  Kimochne, 
"night  walkers."  These  people  get  into  the  houses  at  night  and 
steal  whatever  they  can  get.  The  Indians  say  that  they  bewitch 
the  family  into  a  profound  sleep  so  as  not  to  be  discovered. 
They  are  said  to  be  able  to  go  a  hundred  miles  or  more  and 
back  during  a  single  night,  proceeding  through  the  air  over 
hill  and  dale  and  river.  This  seemed  to  me  incredible,  but  I 
have  been  told  by  various  individuals  that  it  is  true.  We  have 
several  converted  sorcerers  in  the  congregation. 301% 

Most  extraordinary  experiences  have  been  met  with  by  boys 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  when  they  have  been 
alone  in  the  forest  in  apprehension  and  in  need.  An  old  man  in 
a  gray  beard  may  have  appeared  and  said  in  soothing  tone,  "Do 
not  fear,  I  am  a  rock  and  thou  shalt  call  me  by  this  name.  I 
am  the  Lord  of  the  whole  earth  and  of  every  living  creature 
therein,  of  the  air  and  of  wind  and  weather.  No  one  dare 
oppose  me  and  I  will  give  thee  the  same  power.  No  one  shall 
do  thee  harm  and  thou  needest  not  to  fear  any  man."  Such 
and  similar  prophecies  he  makes.  Such  a  boy  ruminates  upon 
what  he  has  heard  and  is  confirmed  in  the  opinion  as  he  grows 
up  that  a  peculiar  power  has  been  imparted  to  him  to  perform 
extraordinary  exploits,  and  he  imagines  that  no  one  can  do 
him  injury.  As  he  can  receive  no  further  instruction  from  any 
one,  he  must  learn  from  experience  how  far  he  can  go,  his 
imagination  inspiring  him  to  make  every  effort.  Such  boys 
give  themselves  to  the  practice  of  the  dark  arts,  having  abun 
dance  of  time  for  investigation  and  practice,  because  in  their 
youth  they  are  not  required  to  work  unless  they  choose  to  do  so. 
Such  a  boy  is  feared  above  others,  but  of  these  there  are  very 
few.  Others  have  been  led  by  dreams  to  study  theory  and 


128  David  Zeisberger's  History 

practice  of  the  black  art  Most  are  deceivers  who  pretend  to 
be  able  to  leap  over  a  river  or  from  one  mountain  to  another. 
Old  women  are  sometimes  accused  of  being  witches.  If  a  child 
dies  suddenly  some  one  will  pretend  to  have  seen  an  old  woman 
with  the  child  at  night,  who  is  then  believed  to  have  bewitched 
the  little  one.  Some  old  woman  or  another  Indian  may  thus, 
though  quite  innocent,  be  thought  guilty  of  witchcraft  and  be 
thus  considered  to  the  end  of  life.  Again  there  are  witches  sup 
posed  to  go  through  the  towns  at  night  in  the  form  of  an  owl 
or  a  fox.  It  is  nothing  strange  that  an  owl  or  a  fox  should 
get  into  the  town,  as  many  of  the  towns  are  surrounded  by  the 
forest.  Such  witches  are  supposed  to  kill  Indians,  bring  dis 
ease  and  plague  into  the  town.  The  worst  is  said  to  be  that 
when  such  animals  are  shot  at  they  do  not  die,  being  able 
to  close  up  the  wound  caused  by  the  bullet. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Indians  of  such  character  have  been 
led  to  lead  a  new  life  and  turn  from  all  deceitful  practices. 
From  them  it  has  been  learned  that  most  of  their  dark  practices 
grow  out  of  imagination  and  superstition.  Of  those,  however, 
who  seem  versed  in  the  us-e  of  Mattapassigan  none  have  to  the 
present  time  been  converted,  though  some  with  whom  I  came 
into  contact  were  inclined  to  better  themselves  but  were  unable 
to  refrain  from  their  evil  practices,  being  afraid,  apparently, 
that  their  lives  would  be  endangered. 

That  the  Indians  have  some  sort  of  religion  and  mode  of 
worship  whereby  they  endeavor  to  please  the  Deity,  cannot  be 
denied.  Their  worship,  however,  is  unreasoning  devotion.  It 
is  remarkable  that  savages  who  have  been  cut  off  from  associa 
tion  with  other  nations  for  no  one  knows  how  many  centuries 
should  have  so  much  knowledge  of  Deity  that  is  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation. 

They  believe  and  have  from  time  immemorial  believed  that 
there  is  an  Almighty  Being  who  has  created  heaven  and  earth 
and  man  and  all  things  else.  This  they  have  learned  from  their 
ancestors,  but  where  the  dwelling  place  of  the  Deity  is  they 
know  not.  They  have  always  heard  that  whoever  lives  a 
virtuous  life,  refrains  from  stealing,  murder  and  immorality, 


North  American  Indians.  129 

would  at  death  go  to  some  good  place  where  conditions  would 
be  better  than  here,  where  there  would  be  a  superfluity  of  every 
thing  and  a  happy  life  of  joy  and  dancing.  On  the  contrary, 
whoever  lived  an  evil  life  would  arrive  at  no  good  place  but 
have  to  wander  about  sad  and  unhappy.  Hence  nothing  is  so 
terrible  and  awful  to  them  as  death,  because  they  do  not  know 
how  it  will  be  after  this  life  nor  whither  they  shall  go.  When 
ever  they  think  of  death  they  are  filled  with  anxiety,  but  rather 
than  consider  how  they  ought  to  live  they  seek  to  rid  them 
selves  of  thoughts  of  death.  They  fear  the  thunderbolt,  because 
it  occasionally  strikes  and  shatters  the  trees,  but  they  seek  to 
disguise  their  fear.  Yet  they  believe  that  the  Deity  is  graciously 
and  mercifully  disposed  towards  men,  because  he  imparts  power 
to  the  plants  to  grow,  causes  the  rain  to  fall  and  the  sun  to 
shine  and  gives  game  to  man  for  his  support.  Indeed,  as  to 
fish  and  deer  they  imagine  them  given  particularly  to  the  Indians 
and  not  so  much  to  the  whites  for  the  Indians  were  created  to 
sustain  themselves  by  the  chase  and  the  whites  by  the  work  of 
their  hands.  There  are  indeed  some  among  them  who  pretend 
to  be  able  to  bring  rain  when  there  has  been  drought,  and  such 
a  person  knowing  that  the  women,  whose  business  it  is  to  care 
for  the  plantations,  are  anxious  for  rain  shows  his  cleverness 
in  deceiving  the  people.  Noticing  from  cloudy  appearances  early 
in  the  morning  that  it  is  likely  to  rain  during  the  day,  he  will 
tell  some  one,  that  if  tobacco  or  something  else  that  he  wishes 
is  given  him  he  will  bring  rain.  The  party  so  informed  will  tell 
the  women,  who  in  their  joy  contribute  each  a  little  and  bring 
the  fellow  what  he  desires.  The  latter  goes  to  some  lonely  place, 
draws  a  circle  on  the  ground,  makes  a  cross  within  it  and  puts 
tobacco,  a  pumpkin  and  some  red  coloring  into  it  as  well,  seats 
himself,  sings  and  shouts  so  that  he  may  be  heard,  continuing 
if  possible  until  it  begins  to  rain.  Even  sensible  Indians  believe 
that  he  has  brought  the  rain  because  under  the  circumstances  it 
generally  rains.  In  case  the  rain  fails  to  come  he  makes  promises 
for  another  day. 

They  believe  God  to  be  almighty  and  able  to  do  as  he  pleases. 
Hence   in  times  past   they   brought   sacrifices  and   still   do  this 
9 


130  David  Zeisberger's  History 

making  their  offerings  not  directly  to  the  Deity  but  to  things 
of  his  creation,  as  will  later  appear.  No  one  has  ever  heard 
that  they  have  sacrificed  to  the  devil,  whom  together  with  all 
evil  spirits  they  abhor,  believing  that  all  evil  comes  from  them, 
even  as  all  good  comes  from  God. 

They  seem  to  have  had  no  idea  of  the  devil  until  in  modern 
times  preachers  arose  among  them  who  proclaimed  that  there 
was  such  a  being,  having  secured  their  knowledge  from  the 
whites.  They  have  no  very  definite  conception  of  him  but  con 
sider  him  to  be  a  very  powerful  spirit,  able  to  work  much  harm 
and  unable  to  do  any  good.  Many  say  also  that  Indians  would 
never  be  claimed  by  the  devil,  however  wicked  they  might  be 
in  the  world,  because  he  existed  only  for  the  whites  who  wrought 
evil.  They  declare  that  he  is  not  to  be  found  among  the  In 
dians  but  only  among  the  white  people,  for  if  he  were  among 
the  Indians  they  would  long  since  have  discovered  him,  and 
their  ancestors  would  have  told  them  about  him.  They  did 
know,  however,  about  good  and  evil  spirits  which  appears  from 
this :  when  crimes  had  been  committed,  the  guilty  ones  laid  the 
blame  on  an  evil  spirit  who  had  seduced  them.  They  have  also 
been  accustomed  to  admonish  one  another  in  time  of  war  not 
to  give  ear  to  the  evil  spirit  but  to  the  good  spirit  who  counseled 
peace.  They  also  knew  nothing  of  Hell,  believing  only  that 
wicked  men  would  go  to  no  good  place  after  this  life.  They 
have  no  proper  term  for  such  a  place  other  than  Machtandon- 
winek  which  means,  with  the  devil,  Machtando  meaning  the  Evil 
One.  They  have  never  had  regularly  appointed  priests,  the 
oldest  men  having  usually  performed  the  sacrifices,  admonished 
the  people  to  good  life  and  conduct,  warned  them  against  im 
morality,  murder  and  violence,  if  they  would  be  happy,  attain 
to  great  age  and  after  death  get  to  the  good  place.  How  much 
this  meant  among  blind  savages  who  were  dead  in  sins  and  had 
not  the  ability  to  withstand  evil  and  vice  may  be  readily  im 
agined.  It  is  possible  that  the  admonitions  of  the  aged  availed 
to  the  extent  of  restraining  wickedness,  so  that  it  did  not  break 
forth  as  it  does  at  the  present  time.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
there  were  formerly  fewer  vices  than  now.  Of  some  forms  of 
indulgence  they  know  nothing,  for  example  of  strong  drink, 


North  American  Indians.  131 

through  which  unquestionably  many  evils  have  crept  in.  They 
lived  in  earlier  days  more  simply,  perhaps  one  ought  to  say 
more  stupidly,  and  now  that  they  have  gained  in  knowledge  and 
understanding  they  have  become  practiced  in  wickedness. 

They  consider  the  soul  to  be  an  invisible  being  and  a  spirit. 
Formerly,  they  used  the  word  Wtellenapewoagan  to  describe 
it,  meaning  the  "Substance  of  a  Human  Being."  Savages  use 
this  word  to  the  present  day.  Now  they  have  accepted  the  word 
Wtschitschank,  that  is,  "Spirit."  They  believe  also  in  the  im 
mortality  of  the  soul.  Some  likened  themselves  to  corn  which 
when  thrown  out  and  buried  in  the  soil  comes  up  and  grows. 
Some  believe  their  souls  to  be  in  the  sun  and  only  their  bodies 
here.  Others  say  that  when  they  die  their  souls  will  go  to  God 
and  suppose  that  when  they  have  been  some  time  with  God 
they  w7ill  be  at  liberty  to  return  to  the  world  and  be  born  again. 
Hence,  many  believe  that  their  souls  have  come  from  God  and 
that  they  have  been  in  the  world  before. 

They  believe  also  in  the  transmigration  of  the  soul.  Wander 
ing  spirits  and  ghosts,  they  claim,  sometimes  throw  something 
into  a  public  path  and  whoever  goes  over  it  is  bewitched  and 
becomes  lame  or  ill.  They  even  pretend  to  know  where  such 
a  thing  happened,  learning  it  from  the  doctors  who  are  thought 
to  be  able  to  effect  a  cure. 

Concerning  the  deluge  there  are  some  fairly  clear  traditions 
among  the  Indians.  According  to  these,  the  world  was  at  one 
time  entirely  flooded  and  all  men  perished.  The  turtle,  however, 
able  to  live  both  on  land  and  sea,  had  survived  and  again  peo 
pled  the  world.  Hence,  the  Turtle  Tribe  is  the  most  important 
among  the  Indians.  Another  tradition  is  that  when  the  earth 
was  flooded  some  men  and  women  had  seated  themselves  on 
the  back  of  a  turtle  of  such  great  age  that  moss  had  already 
grown  on  its  back.  These  people  commissioned  a  diver  that 
flew  nearby  to  search  for  land.  After  searching  in  many  re 
gions  this  bird  had  at  last  returned  with  a  bit  of  earth  in  its 
mouth.  They,  then,  proceed  on  the  back  of  the  turtle  to 
where  this  earth  had  been  procured  and  found  a  little  spot  of 
dry  land,  where  they  settled.  Gradually  more  land  appeared, 
and  this  was,  eventually,  peopled  by  the  descendants  of  those 


132  David  Zcisbcrgcr's ,  History 

who   had   on   the    back    of    the    turtle    escaped    the    general    de 
struction. 

Concerning  their  origin  no  trace  of  tradition  is  to  be  found 
among  the  Indians.  From  some  old  Mingoes  I  heard  that  they 
believed  themselves  to  have  come  from  under  the  earth,  where 
they  had  lived  before.  A  badger  had  worked  his  way  to  the 
surface,  seen  the  beautiful  land  and  returned  at  once  to  an 
nounce  to  them  what  he  had  seen.  They  had  been  so  pleased 
with  his  account  that  they  left  their  subterranean  abode  forth 
with  and  settled  in  this  beautiful  land.  From  their  habit  of 
speaking  in  figure  or  parable,  it  may  be  concluded  that  by  this 
account  they  mean  to  convey  the  idea  that  they  originally  came 
from  the  other  side  of  the  earth.  Others  say  that  they  came 
from  under  the  water,  which  may  mean  much  the  same  thing. 
The  tradition  of  the  Nantikoks  is  that  seven  Indians  had  sud 
denly  seen  themselves  seated  at  the  sea-side.  Whether  they  had 
come  over  the  sea  or  been  there  created  they  did  not  know.  De 
scendants  of  these  Indians  peopled  the  land.  Others,  again, 
claim  that  the  first  human  being  fell  from  heaven.  This  was  a 
woman,  cast  out  from  the  upper  regions  by  her  husband.  Shortly 
after  her  fall  from  heaven  she  was  delivered  of  twins,  from 
whom  the  inhabitants  of  this  land  are  descended.  They  believe 
that  in  the  realm  above  them  is  a  world  of  men  much  like  this, 
whence  the  Indians  originally  came. 

They  believe  in  numerous  spirits  or  subordinate  deities. 
Almost  all  animals  and  the  elements  are  looked  upon  as  spirits, 
one  exceeding  the  other  in  dignity  and  power.  There  is  scarcely 
an  Indian  who  does  not  believe  that  one  or  more  of  these  spirits 
has  not  been  particularly  given  him  to  assist  him  and  make  him 
prosper.  This,  they  claim,  has  been  made  known  to  them  in 
a  dream,  even  as  their  religious  belief  and  witchcraft  is  alleged 
to  have  been  made  known  to  them  in  a  dream.  One  has,  in  a 
dream,  received  a  serpent  or  a  buffalo,  another  the  sun  or  the 
moon,  another  an  owl  or  some  other  bird,  another  a  fish,  some 
even  ridiculously  insignificant  creatures  such  as  ants.  These 
are  considered  their  spirits  or  Manittos.  If  an  Indian  has  no 
Manitto  to  be  his  friend  he  considers  himself  forsaken,  has 
nothing  upon  which  he  may  lean,  has  no  hope  of  any  assistance 


North  American  Indians.  133 

and  is  small  in  his  own  eyes.  On  the  other  hand  those  who 
have  been  thus  favored  possess  a  high  and  proud  spirit. 

About  thirty  years  ago302  preachers  appeared  among  the 
Indians.  They  pretended  to  have  received  revelations  from 
above,  to  have  traveled  into  heaven  and  conversed  with  God. 
They  gave  different  accounts  of  their  journey,  but  all  agreed  in 
this :  that  no  one  could  enter  heaven  without  great  danger,  for 
the  road,  say  they,  runs  close  by  the  gates  of  hell.  Here  the 
devil  lies  in  ambush  and  snatches  at  every  one  who  is  going  to 
God.  They  came  first  to  the  Son  of  God  and  through  him  to 
God  himself,  with  whom  they  pretend  to  have  conversed  con 
cerning  the  Indians  and  by  whom  they  were  commanded  to  in 
struct  their  people.  Thus  the  Indians  were  for  the  first  time  in 
formed  that  there  w7as  a  heaven  where  was  the  d welling  of  God 
and  a  hell  that  of  the  devil.  Presumably  they  got  this  knowledge 
from  the  whites.  Some  of  the  preachers  confessed  that  they 
had  not  reached  the  dwelling  of  God  but  had  approached  near 
enough  to  hear  the  cocks  crow  and  see  the  smoke  of  the  chim 
neys  in  heaven.  Others  that  they  had  approached  the  Son  of 
God  and  then  returned. 

These  teachers  marked  off  on  a  piece  of  parchment  made 
of  deerskin  two  roads,  both  leading  to  heaven,  one  designated 
by  God  for  the  Indians,  the  other  for  the  white  people.  They 
claim  that  the  latter  had  to  go  a  great  way  round  about  and 
the  road  for  the  Indians  was  at  that  time  the  shortest,  but  now, 
since  the  white  people  had  blocked  up  the  road  for  the  Indians, 
they  were  obliged  to  make  a  long  circuit  to  come  to  God.  Fur 
ther,  there  were  paintings  of  heaven  and  hell  upon  the  parch 
ment  as  also  the  figure  of  a  balance  to  represent  the  deceitful 
traffic  carried  on  by  the  white  people  with  the  Indians.  This 
rude  parchment  is,  as  it  were,  their  Bible,  and  lies  spread  before 
them  when  they  preach  for  the  Indians.  They  then  explain 
every  mark  and  figure  to  their  hearers  and  it  is  very  evident 
that  their  chief  aim  is  to  influence  the  minds  of  the  Indians 
against  the  white  people.  It  is  certain  that  their  preaching  has 
had  this  effect,  for  about  this  time  war  broke  out  between  In 
dians  and  whites  there  having  been  no  such  war  before. 

They  declared  to  the  Indians  that  God  had  commanded  their 


134  David  Zeisberger's  History 

cleansing  from  sin  and  to  this  end  they  gave  them  twelve  dif 
ferent  kinds  of  Beson  to  drink,  supposed  by  causing  vomiting 
to  free  them  of  sinful  taint.  Some  Indians,  following  these  in 
junctions,  vomited  so  often  that  their  lives  were  endangered  by 
it.303  They  were,  further,  strictly  ordered  to  fast,  and  to  take 
nothing  but  Beson.  Few  persevered  in  this  absurd  practice 
the  required  length  of  time. 

Other  teachers  pretended  that  stripes  were  the  most  ef 
fectual  means  to  purge  away  sin.  They  advised  their  hearers 
to  suffer  themselves  to  be  beaten  with  twelve  different  sticks 
from  the  soles  of  their  feet  to  their  necks,  that  their  sins  might 
pass  from  them  through  their  throats.  They  preached  a  system 
of  morals,  very  severe  for  the  savages,  insisting  that  the  Indians 
abstain  from  fornication,  adultery,  murder,  theft  and  practice 
virtuous  living  as  the  condition  to  their  attaining  after  death 
the  place  of  the  good  spirits,  which  they  call  Tschipeghacki,  the 
"land  of  spirits,"  where  the  life  is  happy  and  deer,  bear  and  all 
manner  of  game  are  abundant  and  the  water  is  like  crystal. 
There  nought  was  to  be  heard  save  singing,  dancing  and  merry 
making.  Formerly  the  Indians  only  knew  of  a  good  place 
promised  to  the  virtuous,  but  they  did  not  know  where  the  place 
was.  The  preachers  pretend  to  have  found  the  place,  which 
lies  to  the  south.  The  passage  thither  is  the  milky  way  which 
may  be  seen  in  the  heavens  on  a  clear  night.  They  venture  also 
to  describe  the  appearance  of  the  place  for  there  are  Indians 
who  have  been  dead  for  several  days  and  returned  to  life  who 
have  been  there  and  have  told  of  the  things  seen.  Whoever 
reaches  that  place  will  find  a  city  of  beautiful  houses  and 
clean  streets.  Entering  a  house  he  will  see  no  one  but  have 
good  things  to  eat  placed  before  him,  a  fire  made  and  a  bed 
prepared  —  all  of  which  is  done  by  spirits  invisible  to  him. 
Others  assert  that  such  an  one  will  see  the  women  coming  with 
baskets  on  their  backs  full  of  strawberries  and  bilberries,  large 
as  apples,  and  will  observe  that  the  inhabitants  daily  appear  in 
fine  raiment  and  live  a  life  of  rejoicing. 

In  this  they  all  agree  that  the  bad  Indians,  who  have  not 
lived  as  these  preachers  exhorted  them,  will  not  reach  the  place, 
Tschipeghacki,  but  must  remain  some  distance  away,  able  to  see 


North  American  Indians.  135 

those  within  dwelling  happily  but  not  able  to  enter.  They  would 
receive  nothing  but  poisonous  wood  and  poisonous  roots  to  eat, 
holding  them  ever  near  the  brink  of  a  bitter  death  but  not 
suffering  them  to  die. 

While  these  preachers  admonished  the  Indians  to  lead  a 
good  and  virtuous  life  their  own  walk  and  conduct  altogether 
disagreed  with  their  exhortation.  They  introduced  polygamy, 
and  during  their  sermons  had  several  of  their  wives  sitting 
'round  about  them.  They  even  pretended  that  it  was  a  charitable 
and  meritorious  act  in  them,  as  men  living  upon  terms  of  inti 
macy  with  God,  to  take  these  poor  ignorant  women  and  lead 
them  in  the  way  to  God  and  to  the  enjoyment  of  eternal  felicity. 

This  part  of  their  doctrine  was  greatly  relished  by  the  In 
dians,  and  it  is  a  lamentable  truth  that  since  that  period  adultery, 
fornication  and  other  such  abominations  have  been  more  fre 
quent  among  the  Indians.  The  young  began  to  despise  the 
counsel  of  the  aged  and  endeavored  to  get  into  favor  with  these 
preachers  whose  followers  multiplied  very  fast.  Some  of  the 
preachers  went  even  so  far  as  to  make  themselves  equal  with 
God.  They  affirmed  that  the  weal  and  woe  of  the  Indians  de 
pended  upon  their  will  and  pleasure.  Their  deluded  followers, 
possessing  the  highest  veneration  for  them,  brought  them  many 
presents.  Even  some  of  the  most  sensible  and  respected  Indians 
assented  to  their  doctrines,  punctually  following  their  prescrip 
tions  even  at  the  hazard  of  health  and  life.  Some  of  the  latter 
we  now  have  in  the  congregation,  who  have  learned  that  noth 
ing  avails  to  deliver  from  the  servitude  of  sin  save  the  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ. 

One  of  these  preachers  often  proclaimed  openly  to  the 
Indians  that  he  was  quite  at  home  at  the  side  of  God,  went 
in  and  out  of  his  presence  where  neither  sin  nor  Satan  could 
do  him  harm;  he  stated,  however,  that  he  had  never  heard  of 
the  God  on  the  cross  preached  by  the  Moravians,  and  did  not 
believe  him  to  be  the  real  God  for  his  God  had  no  wounds  and 
gave  him  whenever  he  appeared  a  little  piece  of  bread,  white 
as  snow.  On  another  occasion,  having  prepared  a  drink  of 
bilberries  he  announced  that  this  was  the  blood  of  the  Son  of 


136  David  Zeisberger's  History 

God.  Thus  it  appeared  that  through  him  Satan  endeavored  to 
rob  the  gospel  of  its  power  over  the  Indians. 

As  long  as  the  preachers  did  not  proclaim  things  evidently 
untrue  they  were  held  in  great  regard  and  had  a  considerable 
following  withersoever  they  went,  for  they  never  remained  long 
in  one  place,  else  their  deception  would  have  been  revealed  the 
sooner.  They  still  preached  in  Gekelemukpechiink  304  when  the 
Moravians  came  to  the  Muskingum.  Soon  thereafter  they  be 
gan  to  be  too  coarse,  seeking  to  establish  their  teaching  in  oppo 
sition  to  the  gospel.  This  brought  about  the  end  of  their  in 
fluence.  One  has  since  heard  little  of  them  and  the  most  have 
died.  For  at  the  last  they  preached  that  whoever  would  be 
lieve  in  them  and  follow  their  direction  would  be  happy  in  the 
chase  and  in  all  other  undertakings,  would  be  able  to  cross  sea 
and  land,  would  reap  plenteous  harvests  even  though  little  had 
been  planted.  The  Indians  who  trusted  in  them  soon  saw  that 
they  had  been  deceived  and  that  they  had  been  brought  to 
starvation  by  the  treacherous  preachers.  Then  the  power  of  the 
latter  was  at  an  end. 

Worship  and  sacrifices  have  obtained  among  them  from  the 
earliest  times,  being  usages  handed  down  from  their  ancestors. 
Though  in  the  detail  of  ceremony  there  has  been  change,  as  the 
Indians  are  more  divided  now  than  at  that  time,  worship  and 
sacrifice  have  continued  as  practiced  in  the  early  days,  for  the 
Indians  believe  that  they  would  draw  all  manner  of  disease  and 
misfortune  upon  themselves  if  they  omitted  to  observe  the  an 
cestral  rites. 

In  the  matter  of  sacrifice,  relationship,  even  though  distant, 
is  of  significance,  legitimate  or  illegitimate  relationship  being 
regarded  without  distinction.  A  sacrifice  is  offered  by  a  family, 
with  its  entire  relationship,  once  in  two  years.  Others,  even  the 
inhabitants  of  other  towns,  are  invited.  Such  sacrifices  are  com 
monly  held  in  autumn,  rarely  in  winter.  As  their  connections 
are  large,  each  Indian  will  have  opportunity  to  attend  more 
than  one  family  sacrifice  a  year.  The  head  of  the  family  knows 
the  time  and  he  must  provide  for  everything.  When  the  head 
of  such  a  family  is  converted,  he  gets  into  difficulty  because  his 


Nor tli  American  Indians.  137 

friends  will  not  give  him  peace  until  he  has  designated  some  one 
to  take  his  place  in  the  arrangement  for  sacrificial  feasts. 

Preparations  for  such  a  sacrificial  feast  extend  through 
several  days.  The  requisite  number  of  deer  and  bears  is  calcu 
lated  and  the  young  people  are  sent  into  the  woods  to  procure 
them  together  with  the  leader  whose  care  it  is  to  see  that  every 
thing  needful  is  provided.  These  hunters  do  not  return  until 
they  have  secured  the  amount  of  booty  counted  upon.  On  their 
return  they  fire  a  volley  when  near  the  town,  march  in  in  solemn 
procession  and  deposit  the  flesh  in  the  house  of  sacrifice.  Mean 
time  the  house  has  been  cleared  and  prepared.  The  women  have 
prepared  fire-wood  and  brought  in  long  dry  reed  grass,  which  has 
been  strewn  the  entire  length  of  the  house,  on  both  sides,  for  the 
guests  to  sit  upon.  Such  a  feast  may  continue  for  three  or  four 
nights,  the  separate  sessions  beginning  in  the  afternoon  and  last 
ing  until  the  next  morning.  Great  kettles  full  of  meat  are  boiled 
and  bread  is  baked.  These  are  served  to  the  guests  by  four 
servants  especially  appointed  for  this  service.  The  rule  is  that 
whatever  is  thus  brought  as  a  sacrifice  must  be  eaten  altogether 
and  nothing  left.303  A  small  quantity  of  melted  fat  only  is 
poured  into  the  fire.  The  bones  are  burnt,  so  that  the  dogs  may 
not  get  any  of  them.  After  the  meal  the  men  and  women  dance, 
every  rule  of  decency  being  observed.  It  is  not  a  dance  for 
pleasure  or  exercise,  as  is  the  ordinary  dance  engaged  in  by  the 
Indians,  One  singer  only  performs  during  the  dance,  walking 
up  and  down,  rattling  a  small  tortoise  shell  filled  with  pebbles. 
He  sings  of  the  dreams  the  Indians  have  had,  naming  all  the 
animals,  elements  and  plants  they  hold  to  be  spirits.  None  of 
the  spirits  of  things  that  are  useful  to  the  Indians  may  be 
omitted.  By  worshipping  all  the  spirits  named  they  consider 
themselves  to  be  worshipping  God,  who  has  revealed  his  will 
to  them  in  dreams.  When  the  first  singer  has  finished  he  is 
followed  by  another.  Between  dances  the  guests  may  stop  to 
eat  again.  There  are  four  or  five  kinds  of  feasts,  the  ceremonies 
of  which  differ  much  from  one  another. 

In  another  kind  of  feast  the  men  dance  clad  only  in  their 
Breech-clout,  their  bodies  being  daubed  all  over  with  white  clay. 


138  David  Zcisberger's  History 

At  a  third  kind  of  feast  ten  or  more  tanned  deer-skins  are 
given  to  as  many  old  men  or  women,  who  wrap  themselves  in 
them  and  stand  before  the  house  with  their  faces  turned  toward 
the  east,  praying  God  with  a  loud  voice  to  reward  their  bene 
factors.  They  turn  toward  the  east  because  they  believe  that 
God  dwells  beyond  the  rising  of  the  sun.  At  the  same  time 
much  wampum  is  given  away.  This  is  thrown  on  the  ground 
and  the  young  people  scramble  for  it.  Afterward  it  is  ascer 
tained  who  secured  the  most.  This  feast  is  called  'ngammuin, 
the  meaning  of  which  they  themselves  are  unable  to  give. 

A  fourth  kind  of  feast  is  held  in  honor  of  a  certain  voracious 
spirit,  who,  according  to  their  opinions,  is  never  satisfied.  The 
guests  are,  therefore,  obliged  to  eat  all  the  bear's  flesh  and 
drink  the  melted  fat.  Though  indigestion  and  vomiting  may 
result  they  must  continue  and  not  leave  anything. 

A  fifth  kind  of  festival  is  held  in  honor  of  fire  which  the 
Indians  regard  as  being  their  grandfather  and  call  Machtusin, 
meaning  "to  perspire.''  A  sweating-oven  is  built  in  the  midst 
of  the  house  of  sacrifice,  consisting  of  twelve  poles  each  of  a 
different  species  of  wood.  These  twelve  poles  represent  twelve 
Manittos,  some  of  these  being  creatures,  others  plants.  These 
they  run  into  the  ground,  tie  together  at  the  top,  bending  them 
toward  each  other ;  these  are  covered  entirely  with  blankets, 
joined  closely  together,  each  person  being  very  ready  to  lend 
his  blanket,  so  that  the  whole  appears  like  a  baker's  oven,  high 
enough  nearly  to  admit  a  man  standing  upright.  After  the 
meal  or  sacrifice,  fire  is  made  at  the  entrance  of  the  oven  and 
twelve  large  stones,  about  the  size  of  human  heads,  are  heated 
and  placed  in  the  oven.  Then  twelve  Indians  creep  into  it  and 
remain  there  as  long  as  they  can  bear  the  heat.  While  they 
are  inside  twelve  pipes  full  of  tobacco  are  thrown,  one  after  an 
other,  upon  the  hot  stones  which  occasions  a  smoke  almost 
powerful  enough  to  suffocate  those  confined  inside.  Some  one 
may  also  walk  around  the  stones  singing  and  offering  tobacco, 
tor  tobacco  is  offered  to  fire.  Usually,  when  the  twelve  men 
emerge  from  the  oven,  they  fall  down  in  a  swoon.  During  this 
feast  a  whole  buck-skin  with  the  head  and  antlers  is  raised  upon 
a  pole,  head  and  antlers  resting  on  the  pole,  before  which  the 


North  American  Indians.  139 

Indians  sing  and  pray.  They  deny  that  they  pay  any  adoration 
to  the  buck,  declaring  that  God  alone  is  worshipped  through 
this  medium  and  is  so  worshipped  at  his  will. 

At  these  feasts  there  are  never  less  than  four  servants,  to 
each  of  whom  a  fathom  of  wampum  is  given  that  they  may  care 
for  all  necessary  things.  During  the  three  or  four  days  they 
have  enough  to  do  by  day  and  by  night.  They  have  leave,  also, 
to  secure  the  best  of  provisions,  such  as  sugar,  bilberries,  mo 
lasses,  eggs,  butter  and  to  sell  these  things  at  a  profit  to  guests 
and  spectators.  Festivals  are  usually  closed  with  a  general 
drinking  bout.  There  are  always  rum-sellers  present  on  such 
occasions  who  make  large  profits.  As  a  result  of  the  drinking 
there  are  generally  several  fatalities,  for,  among  the  Indians  that 
gather  from  various  places,  such  as  wish  to  work  off  an  old 
score  are  ready  to  make  use  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  these 
occasions. 

Besides  these  solemn  feasts  of  sacrifice  there  are  many  of 
less  importance,  for  individuals  arrange  them  on  their  own  ac 
count.  They  invite  guests  and  prepare  a  feast  of  deer  or  bear's 
Mesh.  The  guests  consume  the  whole  meal,  the  host  and  his 
family  being  mere  spectators.  At  the  great  feasts  all  who  are 
present  partake  of  the  food.  Each  individual  may  offer  sac 
rifice  for  himself  when  engaged  in  the  chase,  in  order  that  he 
may  be  successful.  Having  cut  up  a  deer  and  divided  it  into 
many  small  pieces  he  scatters  them  about  for  the  birds  and 
crows  that  sit  about  on  the  trees  waiting.  Retiring  to  some  dis 
tance  the  Indian  will  then  amuse  himself  by  observing  in  what 
manner  they  devour  the  prey.  Another  may  offer  to  his  Manitto 
for  some  other  reason.  Corn  is  said  to  be  the  wife  of  the  In 
dian  and  to  it  they  sacrifice  bear's  flesh.  To  the  deer  and  bear 
they  offer  corn.  To  the  fishes  they  bring  an  offering  of  small 
pieces  of  bread  shaped  in  the  form  of  fishes.  If  an  Indian 
hunter  hears  an  owl  screech  in  the  night  he  immediately  throws 
some  tobacco  into  the  fire,,  muttering  a  few  words  at  the  same 
time.  Then  they  promise  themselves  success  for  the  next  day 
for  the  owl  is  said  to  be  a  powerful  spirit.  In  dreams,  they 
claim,  it  has  been  made  known  to  them  what  creatures  to  regard 
as  their  manittos  and  what  offerings  to  bring  to  them.  Such 


140  David  Zeisberger's  History 

offerings  are  then  regarded  by  God  as  rendered  to  him.  It  is 
clear  enough  that  the  Indians,  professing  to  worship  God  and 
bringing  sacrifices  to  him,  serve  Satan,  who  influences  their 
dreams,  and  keeps  them  in  slavery  in  this  wise,  for  the  Indians 
consider  dreams  to  be  of  great  importance  and  nothing  less  than 
revelations  from  God.  It  is  indeed  true  as  the  Apostle  says,  I 
Cor.  10:20,  ''the  things  which  the  Gentiles  sacrifice,  they  sac 
rifice  to  the  devils  and  not  to  God."  Those  among  the  Indians 
who  have  been  converted  recognize  this  and  henceforth  hold 
the  Indian  sacrifices  and  offerings  to  be  vain  and  do  not  care 
to  say  much  about  them. 

To  the  spirits  of  the  dead  they  offer  both  meat  and  drink- 
offerings.  If  it  is  to  be  a  meat  offering,  which  the  doctors  must 
decide  in  case  of  illness  or  accident,  either  a  hog  or  a  bear  is 
killed  for  a  feast  and  guests  are  invited.  The  latter  assemble 
in  the  house  where  the  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered.  An  old  man 
gives  part  of  the  meal  to  the  enraged  spirits,  speaks  with  them, 
and  begs  them  to  be  pacified.  All  this  is  done  in  the  dark ;  there 
must  be  neither  fire  nor  light.  After  the  old  man  has  communed 
with  the  spirits  he  tells  the  guests  that  they  have  been  appeased. 

If  it  is  to  be  a  drink  offering  rum  is  required.  Guests  are 
invited  also.  They  drink  together  and  some  one  speaks  with 
the  spirits  and  pacifies  them.  The  guests  walk  to  the  grave  and 
pour  some  rum  upon  it.  Such  sacrifices  are  very  common  among 
them,  and  are  arranged  even  upon  very  trivial  occasions.  In 
case  of  a  tooth-ache  or  head-ache,  they  imagine  that  the  spirits 
are  displeased  and  must  be  pacified  by  an  offering. 

Every  woman  whose  child  dies  in  a  foreign  land  travels, 
if  possible,  once  a  year  to  the  place  of  its  burial,  taking  another 
woman  with  her,  and  offers  a  drink-offering  upon  its  grave. 

The  hare  is  regarded  as  a  great  God  and  they  bring  offer 
ings  to  it.  The  name  of  one  of  the  twins  born  to  the  woman 
that  was  thrown  from  heaven  was  Tschimammus,  that  is,  hare. 
He  made  the  land  upon  which  the  Indians  dwell  and  was  their 
ancestor.  Now  he  is  said  to  dwell  in  heaven,  for  many  Indians 
who  have  been  there  have  seen  him  and  spoken  to  him  and  to 
them  he  has  declared  that  he  would  come  again. 


North  American  Indians.  141 

The  only  idol  which  the  Indians  have,  and  which  may  prop 
erly  be  called  an  idol,  is  their  Wsinkhoalican,  that  is  image.  It 
is  an  image  cut  in  wood,  representing  a  human  head,  in  minia 
ture,  which  they  always  carry  about  them  either  on  a  string 
around  their  neck  or  in  a  bag.  They  often  bring  offerings  to 
it.  In  their  houses  of  sacrifice  they  have  a  head  of  this  idol  as 
large  as  life  put  upon  a  pole  in  the  middle  of  the  room. 

Their  ornaments  are  partly  round  shields  and  half  moons 
of  silver,  partly  the  same  forms  made  in  wampum.  These  are 
usually  worn  upon  the  breast  for  adornment.  They  also  have 
great  belts  of  wampum  made  of  the  violet,  not  the  white,  wam 
pum.  Men  as  well  as  women  wear  silver  crosses  upon  the  breast 
and  in  the  ears  which  custom  comes  from  the  French.  The 
Wsinkhoalican  they  like  also  to  hang  about  their  children  to 
preserve  them  from  illness  and  insure  them  success. 

They  are  very  fond  of  white  children.  Hence  Indian  wo 
men  run  after  white  men  and,  when  they  have  white  children, 
make  much  of  them,  although  they  do  not  like  the  white  people. 
Twins  are  regarded  as  particularly  fortunate,  being  looked  upon 
as  favored  people  who  have  a  great  spirit. 

Their  language  resembles  various  other  languages,  some 
more,  some  less.  When  one  remembers  how  near  or  how  far 
they  have  lived  from  one  another  it  will  appear  that  the  differ 
ences  in  the  languages  have  come  about  through  the  separation  of 
the  peoples  and  the  little  contact  they  have  had  with  one  another. 

The  Unami  and  the  Wunalachtico  both  lived  along  the  sea 
in  Pennsylvania  and  in  Jersey,  a  short  distance  from  one  an 
other.  Their  languages  differ  very  little.  That  of  the  Monsys30' 
who  lived  on  the  other  side  of  the  Blue  Mountains  in  Minnissink 
is  very  different  from  these,  so  that  had  they  not  dwelt  nearer 
together  and  been  in  constant  contact  in  recent  times  they  would 
hardly  understand  each  other.  Yet  the  speech  of  each  of  these 
peoples  is  but  a  dialect  of  one  and  the  same  language.  The  lan 
guage  of  the  Mahikanders307  bears  much  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  Monsys,  the  former  having  lived  in  New  York  and  the  Wo- 
apeno  not  far  from  them  in  New  England.  The  language  of  the 
Nantikoks,  formerly  residing  on  the  seacoast  in  Maryland,  very 
much  resembles  the  Delaware,  differing  only  in  pronunciation 


142  David  Zeisberger's  History 

and  accent.  The  language  of  the  Shawanose  is  also  related  to 
the  Monsy  and  Delaware  but,  more  particularly,  to  the  Ma- 
hikander,  only  the  former  generally  place  the  accent  upon  the 
last  syllable  of  a  word.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  they  orig 
inally  lived  in  Florida  and  whether  their  language  changed 
very  much  since  they  were  driven  out  and  lived  first  in  the  Forks 
of  the  Delaware,  then  along  the  Susquehannah,  then  along  the 
Ohio  and  finally  here  among  the  Dela wares,  I  am  not  able  to 
determine,  except  it  be,  that  in  Florida  the  language  of  some 
other  nations  bore  a  resemblance  to  this.  The  language  of  the 
Twichtwees  and  Wawiachtanos  resembles  the  Shawanose  and 
consequently,  also,  the  Delaware.  The  dialects  of  the  Kikapus, 
Tuckachschas,  Moshkos,  Kaskaski  the  further  away  they  lived 
resembles  the  Delawares  less  and  less.  Yet  the  Delawares  have 
much  intercourse  with  them,  for  many  of  them  live  along  the 
Wabash  where  the  Kikapus  have  given  them  hunting  grounds. 
Every  year  Delaware  hunters  go  thither  for  the  chase  and  return. 
The  language  of  the  Ottawas  is  related  somewhat  to  that  of  the 
Shawanose,  Chipuways  and  the  Delawares.  The  language  of 
the  Cherokees  is  a  mixture  of  other  languages.  It  has  a  little 
of  the  Shawanose,  the  Mingoes  and  a  great  deal  of  the  Wion- 
dats.  The  speech  of  the  last  named  people  and  that  of  the  Six 
Nations  are  again  dialects  of  one  and  the  same  language,  differ 
ing  from  one  another  yet  easily  understood  by  either  of  the 
nations  named.  It  appears,  therefore,  safe  to  affirm  that  there 
are  two  principal  languages  spoken  by  the  Indians  of  North 
America,  namely  the  Mingoes  and  the  Delaware.308  Concerning 
the  nations  who  live  along  the  Mississippi  I  have  no  certain 
knowledge.  They  are  not  usually  counted  among  the  northern 
nations.  Their  language  has  an  agreeable  sound  both  in  com 
mon  conversation  and  in  public  delivery.  The  Monsy  is  much 
rougher.  In  their  public  delivery  they  speak  with  a  very  pom 
pous  and  boastful  tone,  in  which  the  Iroquois  excel  all  the  other 
Indians.  There  are,  indeed,  no  rules  of  oratory  laid  down  in  the 
Indian  language,  yet  the  speakers  must  be  well  versed  in  mat 
ters  relating  to  their  own  nation  as  well  as  those  of  others,  and 
they  must  know  what  title  to  apply  to  each  of  the  other  nations, 
whether  brother  or  nephew  or  uncle.  The  same  holds  good  of  the 


North  American  Indians.  143 

various  branches  of  their  own  nation.  The  Monsys  and  Unamis 
call  one  another  Xitgochk,  "my  companion  [feminine]  in  play," 
for  the  reason  that  the  whole  nation  has  become  the  women. 
The  several  tribes,  also,  have  special  names  and  titles,  which 
the  speaker  must  know.  These  titles  are  not  generally  used  but 
only  in  their  councils  when  something  of  importance  is  to  be 
communicated,  which  is  done  with  great  solemnity.  They  are 
able  to  express  themselves  with  great  clearness  and  precision, 
and  so  concisely  that  much  circumlocution  is  required  to  convey 
the  full  meaning  of  their  expressions  in  an  European  language. 
In  spiritual  things,  of  which  they  are  totally  ignorant,  there  was 
utter  lack  of  expressions.  But  since  the  gospel  has  been  preached 
among  them,  their  language  has  gained  much  in  this  respect. 
If  they  intend  to  speak  in  an  obscure  manner,  they  can  speak 
so  cleverly  and  with  so  much  circumstance  that  even  Indians 
must  puzzle  out  the  true  sense  of  their  allusions.  They  are 
able  to  convey  an  account  of  a  bad  action  so  skillfully  that  it 
appears  not  to  be  a  bad  but  a  virtuous  deed.  The  chiefs  are 
not  particularly  well  versed  in  this  art  of  dissembling,  and,  there 
fore,  very  strict  attention  must  be  paid  to  every  word  of  their 
discourse,  especially,  if  an  answer  is  required,  and  great  caution 
is  necessary  in  order  that  one  may  not  be  caught. 

A  speaker  in  council  must  be  able  to  deliver  his  speech 
without  hesitation.  Often  he  has  no  time  to  prepare  his  sub 
ject,  the  different  heads  are  only  briefly  named  or  left  for  him 
to  collect  from  the  conversation  of  the  chiefs.  He  must,  then, 
be  able  to  comprise  the  whole  in  a  speech,  well  arranged  and 
uninterrupted,  which  requires  a  clear  and  open  understanding, 
a  faithful  memory  and  experience  in  matters  of  state.  Young 
men  are  being  constantly  trained  for  such  duty.  They  are  ad 
mitted  as  hearers  to  the  council,  to  familiar  intercourse  with  the 
chiefs,  who  instruct  them  faithfully,  and  are  employed  as  am 
bassadors  to  give  them  an  opportunity  to  exercise  themselves  in 
public  speaking. 

The  pronunciation  of  their  language  is  easy,  only  the  Ch 
is  a  very  deep  gutteral.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  presented  by  the 
compounding  of  words  with  verbs,  substantives  and  adjectives, 
which  is  very  difficult  for  a  European  to  learn.  They  have  few 


144  Ohio  Arch,  and  Hist.  Society  Publications. 

monosyllables.  In  things  relating  to  common  life  the  language 
of  the  Indians  is  remarkably  rich.  They,  in  many  cases,  have 
several  names  for  one  and  the  same  thing  under  different  cir 
cumstances.  They  have  ten  different  names  for  a  bear,  accord 
ing  to  its  age  or  sex.  Similarly,  they  have  a  number  of  names 
for  a  deer.  They  have  one  word  for  fishing  with  a  rod,  another 
for  fishing  with  a  net,  another  for  fishing  with  a  spear  or  har 
poon.  Such  words  do  not  in  the  least  resemble  one  another. 
The  speech  of  the  Unami  has  the  most  agreeable  sound  and  is 
much  easier  for  a  European  to  acquire  than  that  of  the  Monsys. 
The  Monsy  dialect,  however,  is  a  key  to  many  of  the  expres 
sions  in  the  Unami.  The  latter  have  a  way  of  dropping  some 
syllables,  so  that  without  a  knowledge  of  the  former,  it  would  be 
impossible  either  to  spell  their  words  or  guess  their  meaning.  The 
Unami  have  adopted  many  words  of  the  Monsy  dialect  and  the 
Monsys  of  the  Unami  dialect.  They  have  no  "f"  nor  "r"  in 
their  language,  hence  they  pronounce  foreign  words  containing 
these  letters  differently,  for  example,  Pilip  for  Philip,  Petelus 
for  Petrus,  adding  a  syllable,  and  Priscilla  they  pronounce  Pli- 
cilla.  In  polysyllables  the  accent  is  generally  placed  on  the  mid 
dle  syllable  or  on  the  last  but  one.  This  must  be  very  minutely 
attended  to  because  the  sense  of  many  words  depends  upon  the 
accent.  They  can  count  up  to  thousands  and  hundreds  of  thou 
sands,  though  they  are  unable  to  grasp  the  significance  of  large 
numbers.  The  \vomen  generally  count  upon  their  fingers,  for 
this  is  their  custom  and  their  memory  is  poor. 

In  arithmetic  they  have  made  but  little  progress.  They 
count  up  to  ten,  make  a  mark,  proceed  to  the  next  ten  and  so  on 
to  the  end  of  the  account.  By  adding  the  tens  they  come  to 
hundreds,  and  so  on.  In  counting  money  the  penny  is  the  small 
est  coin  they  reckon.  The  Monsys  call  the  stiver,  of  which  they 
learned  from  the  Dutch  in  Minissink,309  stipel.  Sixpence  they 
call  Gull,  corruption  of  the  Dutch  Gulden.  They  usually  count 
money  according  to  Gulls,  twenty  Gulls  being  equal  to  ten  shil 
lings.  If  they  want  to  calculate  carefully,  they  take  Indian 
corn,  calling  every  grain  a  penny  or  a  gull,  adding  as  many  as 
are  necessary  to  make  shillings  and  pounds. 


North  American  Indians.  145 

Of  writing  they  know  nothing,  except  the  painting  of 
hieroglyphics,  already  referred  to,  which  they  know  very  well 
how  to  interpret.  These  drawings  in  red  by  the  warriors  may 
be  legible  for  fifty  years.  After  a  hero  has  died,  his  deeds  may, 
therefore,  be  kept  in  mind  for  many  years  by  these  markings. 
A  letter,  especially,  if  it  is  sealed,  is  considered  a  very  important 
thing.  If  any  treaties,  contracts  or  deeds  are  required  to  be  de 
livered  to  the  Europeans,  signed  by  their  chiefs,  captains  or  coun 
sellors,  they  make  their  mark  and  get  others  to  subscribe  their 
names.  The  mark  may  be  a  hook,  or  the  foot  of  a  turkey  or  a 
turtle  or  represent  something  else.  They  are  very  generally 
ashamed  of  their  Indian  names  and  prefer  the  names  given  them 
by  the  whites.  Some  have  learned  to  write  the  initial  letters  of 
their  new  names. 

In  reckoning  time  they  do  not  count  the  days  but  the  nights. 
An  Indian  says,  "I  have  travelled  so  many  nights."  Only  if  the 
entire  journey  has  been  accomplished  in  one  day,  will  he  speak 
of  a  day's  journey.  Most  of  them  determine  a  number  of  years 
by  so  many  winters,  springs,  summers  or  autumns.  They  say, 
"In  spring  when  we  boil  sugar,"  that  is  March,  or  "when  we 
plant,"  that  is  May,  so  and  so  will  be  of  such  an  age.  Few  know 
their  age  when  they  get  to  be  over  thirty.  Some  reckon  from 
the  time  of  a  hard  frost  or  a  deep  fall  of  snow  in  such  a  year, 
from  an  Indian  war,  or  from  the  founding  of  Pittsburg  or  Phila 
delphia,  when  they  were  so  or  so  old.  They  divide  the  year 
into  winter,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  these  periods  are 
divided  according  to  the  moons,  though,  it  must  be  said,  that 
their  reckoning  is  not  very  accurate.  They  cannot  agree  just 
when  to  begin  the  new  year.  Most  of  them  begin  the  year  with 
the  spring,  that  is  with  March,  which  they  call  Chwoame 
Gischuch,  that  is  the  Shad  month,  because  at  this  season  this 
fish  goes  up  the  rivers  and  creeks  in  great  numbers.  True,  these 
fish  are  not  found  here,  but  the  name  was  brought  from  the 
Susquehanna  region.  April  they  call  Hackihewi  Gischuch,  that 
is  Planting  month,  though  they  rarely  begin  to  plant  before  May 
or  the  end  of  April.  May  has  a  name  signifying  the  month  in 
which  the  hoe  is  used  for  Indian  corn,  though  this  is  usually  not 
10 


146  David  Zeisberger's  History 

done  until  June.  The  name  given  to  June  signifies  the  month 
in  which  the  deer  become  red.  That  of  July,  the  time  of  raising 
the  earth  about  the  corn,  and  of  August,  Winu  Gischuch,  the 
time  when  the  corn  is  in  the  milk  and  ready  to  eat  and  roast. 
September  is  called  the  first  autumn  month,  October  the  harvest 
month,  November  the  hunting  month,  most  of  the  Indians  going 
out  to  shoot  bucks.  The  name  December  shows  the  time  when 
the  bucks  cast  their  antlers.  January  is  the  month  in  which  the 
ground  squirrels  come  out  of  their  holes,  and  February  they  call 
Squalle  Gischuch,  the  month  of  frogs,  the  month  when  the  frogs 
begin  to  croak,  though  this  again  does  not  usually  occur  until 
later.  At  the  present  time  the  most  of  them  begin  the  year  with 
the  Europeans,  if  they  have  come  into  frequent  contact  with 
them. 

They  are  well  versed  in  their  genealogies  and  are  able  to 
describe  every  branch  of  the  family  with  the  greatest  precision. 
They  also  add  concerning  the  character  of  their  forefathers,  such 
an  one  was  a  wise  and  intelligent  man,  a  great  chief  or  captain 
or  an  Achewilens,  that  is  a  rich  man  and  seems  to  signify  as 
much  as  the  word,  gentleman,  for  the  rich  among  them  are  highly 
respected.  These  make  themselves  prominent  by  giving  the 
chiefs  great  quantities  of  wampum,  when  the  chiefs  are  in  need, 
and  they  are  regarded  as  the  main  supports  of  the  chiefs. 

Concerning  remoter  ancestors  they  know  nothing  more  than 
that  they  were  great  warriors  and  accomplished  many  heroic 
deeds,  that  in  che  war  with  the  Six  Nations,  when  they  still  lived 
along  the  sea-coast,  the  former  were  unable  to  do  them  much 
harm  and  after  attacks  on  Delaware  towns  had  fled  in  such  haste 
that  the  Delawares  had  not  been  able  to  catch  them,  though  they 
had  got  to  the  mountains  as  swiftly  as  turkeys,  that,  however, 
in  spite  of  the  ability  of  the  Six  Nations  to  get  away  the  Dela 
wares  had  caught  and  killed  many  of  their  enemies.  They,  also, 
relate  concerning  their  ancestors  that  the  Six  Nations  regarded 
them  as  mighty  magicians,  feared  them  and  at  last  concluded  a 
peace  with  them  in  the  manner  already  described.  Further,  they 
relate  how  in  times  past  the  D'elawares  made  attacks  on  towns 
of  the  Cherokees  and  killed  many  of  the  inhabitants ;  how,  on 
occasion,  they  visited  them  at  night  during  the  dance,  mingled 


North  American  Indians.  147 

with  the  dancers,  and  when  the  amusement  was  at  its  height 
killed  many  of  them  with  short  weapons  they  had  concealed  under 
their  blankets,  escaping,  after  the  deed  was  done,  before  their 
treachery  had  been  discovered. 

The  land  was  never  formally  divided  among  the  nations, 
whatever  region  was  settled  by  a  nation  was  recognized  as  prop 
erty  of  that  nation,  and  no  one  disputed  its  title,  until,  in  course 
of  war,  one  nation  overpowered  another  and  drove  it  out  of  its 
territory.  In  such  cases,  however,  the  conquering  nation  did  not 
always  settle  on  the  conquered  territory ;  for  example,  the  Mosh- 
kos  drove  the  Shawanose  from  their  land  in  Florida  but  did  not 
themselves  settle  there,  still  living  on  the  west  side  of  the  Ohio 
in  the  region  of  the  Wabash.  The  Delawares  conquered  the  ter 
ritory  in  which  they  live,  having  been  driven  out  of  the  region 
they  once  inhabited  by  the  white  people.  The  Wiondats  adjudged 
this  region  as  belonging  to  them ;  and  the  Kikapus  have  given 
them  a  district  along  the  Wabash  and  bordering  on  the  country 
they  inhabit  for  the  chase.  A  part  of  the  Delaware  nation  has 
lived  in  the  Wabash  region  these  many  years,  and  of  those  living 
here  many  go  thither  every  year.  The  boundaries  of  Indian 
countries  are  fixed  along  rivers  and  creeks  or  in  a  straight  line 
from  one  river  to  another  or  along  the  mountain  ranges,  where 
there  are  mountains. 

Of  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth  they  have  no  conception. 
Some  declare  that  the  earth  floats  upon  the  sea  and  that  an 
enormous  tortoise  bears  it  on  its  back.  The  sky,  they  say,  rests 
upon  the  water  probably  because  it  appears  so  to  do  when  they 
look  out  upon  the  sea.  Others  declare  that  there  is  a  place  where 
the  sky  strikes  the  earth,  rises  again  and  continues  moving  up 
and  down,  smiting  a  rock,  which  causes  such  a  report  that  it  may 
be  heard  many  days'  journey.  Two  great  captains  once  visited 
that  place,  and  one  of  them  risked  going  through  the  opening 
when  the  sky  rose.  He  succeeded  in  getting  into  heaven  and 
coming  back.  Yet  where  this  place  is  they  know  as  little  as  they 
do  the  location  of  Tschipey  Hacki,  the  land  of  the  spirits.  The 
sun,  they  think,  sinks  into  the  water  when  it  sets.  Thunder  is  a 
mighty  spirit  dwelling  in  the  mountains  and  sometimes  issuing 
from  their  fastnesses  suffers  himself  to  be  heard.  Others  imag- 


148  David  Zeisberger's  History 

ine  the  thunder  to  proceed  from  the  crowing  of  a  monstrous 
turkey-cock  in  the  heavens.  For  certain  stars  they  have  names. 
The  north  star  is  called  Lowanen,  that  is,  north,  or  it  is  called 
the  star  that  does  not  move.  The  wagon  which  revolves  around 
the  North  Star  they  call  the  Bear,  whom,  they  say,  the  Indians 
pursued  with  a  little  dog,  that  is  the  star  Wilis ;  the  three  stars 
in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  represent  the  head  of  a  bear,  which 
they  cut  from  the  trunk  and  threw  down.  Certain  stars  forming 
an  ellipse  they  call  the  beaver-hide,  because  they  describe  the 
form  of  a  beaver  hide  stretched  out.  The  milky  way  is  the  road  to 
Tschipey  Hacki.  The  seven  stars309*'  they  have  named  Anschisk- 
tauwewak,  that  is  fire-brands  gathered  or  laid,  together.  The 
Monsys  (Monseys)  call  these  stars  Menhangik,  the  travelling 
companions.  Other  nations  have  yet  other  names  for  them.  In 
case  of  an  eclipse  of  sun  or  moon,  they  say  that  these  bodies  have 
fallen  into  a  swoon. 

In  time  of  illness,  they  try  all  manner  of  remedies,  for  they 
have  a  great  fear  of  death.  They  not  only  consult  the  doctors, 
but  take,  also,  the  medicine  that  others  may  prescribe.  The 
doctors  must  be  called  in,  for  if  they  were  slighted,  the  patient 
might  die.  The  doctors  blow  upon  the  patients,  sprinkle  a  drink 
of  roots  and  herbs  they  have  taken  into  the  mouth  upon  them, 
and  murmur  incantations  over  them.  They  diagnose  the  disease, 
tell  whence  it  came  and  inform  them  whether  recovery  is  pos 
sible  or  not.  They  give  directions,  also,  as  to  what  must  be  done 
and  what  kind  of  sacrifice  must  be  brought.  They  prescribe  some 
sort  of  Beson  prepared  from  herbs  and  roots,  of  which  they  know 
the  properties  very  well.  It  has  happened  that  many  doctors 
have  been  consulted  in  a  single  case,  have  perhaps  given  up  all 
hope  of  recovery,  and  yet  the  patient  became  well. 

For  headache  they  lay  a  piece  of  white  walnut  bark  on  the 
temples,  toothache  is  treated  by  placing  the  same  kind  of  bark 
on  the  cheek  over  the  tooth  that  gives  the  trouble.  The  bark 
is  very  heating  and  burns  the  skin  in  a  short  time,  often  afford 
ing  relief.  The  same  bark  is  applied  to  any  of  the  limbs  that 
may  be  afflicted,  having  the  effect  at  times  of  driving  the  pain 
from  one  part  of  the  body  to  another,  until  there  is  an  eruption 
somewhere.  This  6ark  pounded  fine  and  boiled  to  the  con- 


North  American  Indians.  149 

sistency  of  a  strong  lye  stops  the  flow  of  blood  when  applied 
to  a  fresh  wound,  even  though  an  artery  may  have  been  ruptured, 
prevents  swelling  and  heals  the  wound  rapidly.  After  this 
solution  has  been  used  for  one  or  two  days  other  roots  must  be 
applied,  such  as  the  great  sassaparilla  and  others  that  have  heal 
ing  powers. 

Epilepsy  is  not  very  common  among  the  Indians.  It  does 
not  often  happen  that  an  Indian  becomes  mad,  and  madness 
among  these  people  is  not  as  violent  as  among  the  whites, 
probably,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  not  possessed  of  equal 
power  with  the  whites,  and  even  their  bodies  are  weaker  be 
cause  they  have  not  the  abundance  and  variety  of  nourishing 
food.  Blood  letting  is  supposed  to  help  the  epileptics. 

Of  small-pox  they  knew  nothing  until  some  of  them  caught 
the  contagion  from  the  Europeans.  Most  of  them  died  before 
the  small-pox  properly  appeared.  They  are  much  inclined  to 
boils  and  sores.  Upon  these  they  lay  a  warm  poultice  made 
of  the  flour  of  Indian  corn ;  when  the  boils  are  ripe  they  are 
lanced.  Broken  arms  and  legs  they  are  able  to  set  very  well, 
though  limbs  are  not  broken  often,  dislocated  joints  they  are 
also  able  to  correct.  If  an  Indian  has  dislocated  his  foot  or 
knee,  when  hunting  alone,  he  creeps  to  the  next  tree  and  tying 
one  end  of  his  strap  to  it,  fastens  the  other  to  the  dislocated  limb 
and,  lying  on  his  back,  continues  to  pull  until  it  is  reduced. 
For  tooth-ache  the  Indians  use  roots  also,  placing  a  little  piece 
in  the  hollow  tooth,  which  sometimes  affords  relief  though  not 
always.  Sometimes  teeth  are  extracted  if  a  pair  of  pincers  can 
be  secured.  It  is  not  for  lack  of  skill  but  for  lack  of  proper 
instruments  that  they  do  not  treat  external  injuries  more  suc 
cessfully.  Such  instruments  as  they  have  are  not  used  in  the 
most  careful  manner.  If  one  who  is  being  operated  on  cries 
out,  those  present  laugh.  Misfortunes  of  almost  any  kind  trouble 
them  little;  if  house  and  goods  have  been  burned,  the  un 
fortunate  owners  may  even  relate  the  experience  in  a  humorous 
manner. 

Many  of  them  suffer  from  diarrhoea,  particularly,  in  the 
fall  of  the  year.  The  evil  is  aggravated  because  they  know  noth 
ing  of  dieting  and  continue  to  eat  whatever  they  wish.  For 


150  David  Zeisberger's  History 

this  and  for  other  troubles  they  have  roots  and  herbs,  which 
generally  prove  efficient  remedies.  Knowledge  of  these  remedies 
may  be  confined  to  a  very  few,  who  demand  payment  for  any 
prescription  they  make  and  keep  their  secrets  to  themselves. 
One  common  mistake  made  by  all  Indian  practitioners  is  over 
dosing  the  patients.  Fortunately,  the  Indians  have  strong  con 
stitutions,  and  usually  do  not  suffer  permanent  injury  from  the 
unwise  treatment  of  their  doctors. 

Concerning  mourning  for  the  dead  it  might  be  added  that 
a  widow  is  expected  to  observe  in  externals  the  following  rules 
during  the  period  of  mourning  which  lasts  a  year.  She  must 
lay  aside  all  ornaments,  wash  but  little,  for  as  soon  as  she  makes 
pretensions  at  cleanliness,  combs  and  dresses  her  hair,  it  is  re 
ported  that  she  is  anxious  to  marry.  Men  who  are  in  mourn 
ing  have  no  such  regulations  to  observe. 

Should  a  chief  have  lost  a  child  or  near  relative,  no  com 
plaint  may  be  brought  before  him,  nor  may  his  advice  be  asked 
on  any  affairs  of  state.  Even  important  embassies  from  other 
nations  cannot  be  attended  to  by  him  until  comfort  has  been 
formally  offered.  This  is  commonly  done  by  delivering  a  string 
or  fathom  of  wampum  and  addressing  to  him  a  speech,  in  which 
figuratively  the  remains  of  the  deceased  are  buried,  the  grave 
covered  with  bark  that  neither  dew  of  heaven  nor  rain  may  fall 
upon  it,  the  tears  are  wiped  from  the  chief's  eyes,  the  sorrow  of 
burial  taken  from  his  heart  and  his  heart  made  cheerful.  This 
done,  it  is  possible  to  confer  with  him  on  the  matters  of  state 
that  need  consideration. 

When  Europeans,  who  are  in  more  'comfortable  circum 
stances  than  the  Indians,  wish  to  comfort  a  chief,  they  not  only 
give  a  string  of  wampum  but  wrap  the  corpse  of  the  deceased 
in  a  large  piece  of  fine  linen,  laying  another  piece  on  the  grave 
and  wipe  the  tears  from  his  eyes  with  silk  handkerchiefs.  Both 
the  linen  and  the  silks  are  given  him  as  a  present. 

When  a  chief  dies  sympathy  is  expressed  with  the  whole 
nation.  I  will  give  a  brief  description  of  "the  ceremonies  ob 
served  when  the  Cherokees  sent  a  formal  and  numerous  embassy 
to  the  Delawares  in  Goschachgiink  to  renew  their  alliance  with 


North  American  Indians.  151 

them  after  their  Chief  Netawatwes  had  died.  The  ambassadors 
halted  several  miles  below  the  town  and  sent  word  that  they 
had  arrived.  The  day  after  some  Delaware  Captains  went  down 
to  welcome  them  and  delivered  a  speech,  in  which  they  expressed 
joy  on  their  arrival,  extracted  the  thorns  they  had  gotten  on  the 
journey  from  their  feet,  took  the  sand  and  gravel  from  between 
their  toes,  and  anointed  the  wounds  and  bruises  made  by  the 
briars  and  brushwod  with  oil,  wiped  the  perspiration  from  their 
faces  and  the  dust  from  their  eyes,  cleansed  their  ears,  throats 
and  hearts  of  all  evil  they  had  seen,  heard  or  which  had  entered 
their  hearts.  A  string  of  wampum  was  delivered  in  confirma 
tion  of  this  speech  and  then  the  Captains,  accompanied  by  a, 
large  number  of  Indians,  conducted  the  embassadors  to  the 
town.  On  entering  the  Cherokees  saluted  the  inhabitants  by 
firing  their  pieces,  which  was  answered  in  the  same  manner  by 
the  Delawares.  Next,  the  Captain  of  the  Cherokees  began  a 
song,  during  which  they  proceeded  to  the  Council-house,  where 
everything  had  been  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  visitors. 
All  having  been  seated,  the  Cherokee  Captain  comforted  the 
grandfather,  the  Delaware  nation,  over  the  loss  of  the  Chief. 
Continuing  he  wrapped  the  remains  in  a  cloth,  buried  them, 
covered  the  grave  with  bark,  wiped  the  tears  from  the  eyes  of 
the  weeping  nation,  cleansed  their  ears  and  throats  and  took 
away  all  the  sorrow  from  their  hearts.  He  confirmed  his  speech 
by  delivering  a  string  of  wampum.  Then  the  peace-pipe  was 
stuffed,  lighted  and  in  turn  smoked  by  several  Captains  of  the 
Delawares  and  Cherokees. 

The  peace-pipe  is  held  in  high  regard  among  the  Indians. 
It  is  brought  out  at  certain  solemn  occasions,  as  when  peace  is 
concluded  or  renewed.  The  head  is  six  or  eight  inches  long  and 
three  inches  high.  It  is  made  of  stone  or  marble.  A  pipe  made 
of  red  marble,  as  was  the  one  used  on  the  occasion  described 
above,  is  particularly  valued.  The  pipe-stem  is  made  of  wood 
and  blackened,  it  is  strong  and  durable  and  may  be  four  feet 
long.  It  is  wound  around  with  fine  ribbon  and  decorated  with 
ornaments  made  of  porcupine  quills  of  various  colors.  It  may 
be  further  ornamented  with  green,  yellow  and  white  feathers. 
If  the  pipe  is  made  of  red  marble  it  is  whitened  with  white  clay 


152  David  Zeisberger's  History 

or  chalk,  for  red  is  the  color  of  war,  even  though  the  red  marble 
pipe  is  most  highly  valued.  For  the  same  reason  nothing  red 
may  appear  on  a  string  of  wampum.  A  war-belt  is  smeared 
with  red  paint  or  cinnabar.  If  for  want  of  a  white  wampum 
belt,  one  made  of  the  violet  colored  shells  has  to  be  used,  this 
is  whitened  with  clay  and  then  has  the  same  signficance  as  a 
white  belt.  The  dark  \vampum  belts  are  used,  whenever  they 
wish  to  give  some  one  a  severe  lesson  or  a  reproof.  After  the 
ceremonies  described  above  had  been  completed,  and  all  had 
partaken  of  a  feast,  the  exercises  for  that  day  were  at  an  end. 
On  the  next  day  they  approached  the  chief  matters  of  interest 
and  exchanged  belts  of  friendship,  this  part  of  the  negotiations 
lasting  several  days,  as  each  belt  was  presented  in  connection 
with  a  formal  speech. 

A  few  words  should  be  added  concerning  animals. 

1)  Swallows310   are   found,   generally   near   some  body   of 
water.     Snipe311  are  gray  in  color  and  have  a  bill  almost  as  long 
as  the  body  of  the  bird.    The  gull312  is  frequently  seen  near  rivers 
and  lakes.     Two  kinds  of  plover313  may  be  seen  in  these  parts, 
both  found  near  water.     The  one  variety  is  about  the  size  of  a 
blackbird,834  which   is   sometimes   found   away   from   water,   the 
other  much  smaller. 

The  whippoorwill315  is  a  night  bird,  of  gray  color,  somewhat 
smaller  than  a  turtledove.316  It  has  a  thick  head,  a  short  bill  and 
a  wide  mouth.  It  has  received  its  name  from  its  note,  which 
may  be  heard  all  night  long. 

The  Mosquito-hawk317  gets  its  name  from  catching  mosqui 
toes  and  flies  while  on  the  wing.  It  is  about  the  size  of  turtle 
dove,  has  a  round  white  spot  on  each  of  its  wings,  which  seem, 
when  the  animal  flies,  like  holes  in  the  wings.  It  will  dart  up  and 
down  very  swiftly  in  its  efforts  to  catch  insects. 

Of  bees318  nothing  was  known  when  we  came  here  in  '72, 
now  they  are  to  be  found  in  large  numbers  in  hollow  trees  in 
the  woods. 

Wasps31  ftare  found  in  large  numbers. 

2)  Among  the  quadrupeds  the  flying  squirrel320  should  be 
noted.     This  animal  is  about  the  size  of  a  rat,  has  a  thin  mem- 


North  American  Indians.  153 

braneous  continuation  of  the  skin  of  the  sides  and  belly  by  which 
its  hind  and  forelegs  are  connected.  This  supports  the  animal 
in  leaping  from  one  tree  to  another.  In  other  respects  it  re 
sembles  the  common  squirrel. 

3)  There  is  found  here  a  variety  of  rattlesnake312  I  have 
seen  nowhere  else.     It  is  hardly  a  foot  long  and  very  slender,  it 
has  rattles  as  have  the  other  varieties  and  its  bite  is  quite  as  ven 
omous.     The  color  is,  also,  like  that  of  the  other  rattlers,  yellow 
with  black  markings. 

4)  Plants.    Laurel,322  also  called  the  wild  box,  grows  along 
river  banks,  or  in  the  swamps  in  cool  places  or  on  the  north 
side  of  mountains.     It  grows  so   thickly   that   it   is  impossible 
to   get    through.      In    swamps    of    laurel,    bears    like    to    make 
their  winter  quarters.     The  wood   is  fine  and  hard.     The  In 
dians   make   spoons   of   it.      The   main    stem    does    not   become 
thicker  than  a  leg.    The  leaves  are  green  summer  and  winter. 

THE  END. 


154  David  Zeisberger's  History 

NOTES. 


1.  It  is   of   the   Iroquois   and   Delawares  that   the   author   is   speak 
ing.     Six  footers  among  them  were  the  exception;    Red  Jacket  measured 
live   feet   eight ;    Logan,   six   feet ;    Shenandoah,   six   feet  three.     School- 
craft    (History     ...     of   the   Indian    Tribes,   Pt.    IV,   349)    states   that 
he   found   about   one-half   of   the   men   of   the   Chippewa    nation   in   1822, 
six    feet   high;    yet   the   Dakotas   averaged    live    feet   nine.      Keokuk   was 
six    feet   two.     The   Ottawas   were   of   smaller   stature   than   the   average 
lake  tribes.     Schoolcraft   did  not   find   muscular   development   large   save 
among  tribes   located  near  white   settlements  where  the   means  of  suste 
nance  was  more  constantly  supplied. 

2.  The    color    of    the    American    Indian    ranged    from    the    "brown 
yellow"  of  the  mulatto  to  the  paled  faced  "White  Indians"   of  the  Red 
River,  whose  seeming  likeness  to  the  Welsh  has  been  discussed   (Samuel 
Gardner    Drake,    The   Aboriginal   Races    of    North    America,    1,    52-55). 
The   Blanc   Barbus  of    Canada    and    Menomonies   of   Wisconsin   were   of 
lighter   complexion,   while   the   darkest   of   aborigines   were    found   in   the 
Caribbean  Islands,  in  Guinea  and  California.     The  Cherokees  and  Chippe- 
was  have  been  classed  with  the   darker  Indians   of   southern   California, 
the  West  Indies,   etc.,  as  of  possible  Malay  origin.     By  all  accounts  the 
skin   of   the    red   man   is   as    thin   and   soft    as   that   of   the    white    man ; 
poison    ivy    affected    some    Indians    if    they    only    came    in    contact    with 
wind  blowing  over  it  upon  them. 

3.  Peter  A.   Brown,  Esq.,  in  1852,   found  the  fibre  or  shaft  of  the 
average  Indian's  hair  to  be  cylindrical,  while  in  the  case  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  it  is  oval  and  in  the  African  race,  elliptical ;    thus  the  first  would 
be  straight,  the   second  curly   and   the  third   fetted  or   wooly. 

4.  The    Seneca    Tribe   of    the    Six    Nations    were   generally   known 
west  of  New  York  by  the  name  of  Mingo,  especially  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 
The  name  was  also  used  as  an  equivalent  for  the  more  general  term  of 
Iroquois,  but   oftentimes   meaning   those   who   migrated   from   their    New 
York  homeland. 

5.  Shawanese    or    Shawnees   of    the    Scioto    Valley. 

6.  Wyandots   of  the   region  between  the   Sandusky  Valley  and   the 
Detroit  River. 

7.  The    general    impression    that    is    current    concerning    the    hard 
ship   of   the   life    of    Indian    squaws    could    not    have    been    gained    from 
a   careful    reading   of   men   who   wrote   of   the   Indians   in   their    original 
environment.     Writes  Heckewelder :     "There  are  many  persons  who  be 
lieve,   from   the   labour   that   they   see  Indian  women  perform,   that  they 
are  in  a  manner  treated  as   slaves     .     .     .     but  they  have  no  more  than 
their  fair  share     ...     of  the  hardships  attendant  on  savage  life.     The 


North  American  Indians.  155 

work  of  the  women  is  not  hard  or  difficult.  They  are  both  able  and 
willing  to  do  it,  and  always  perform  it  with  cheerfulness.  I  have  never 
known  an  Indian  woman  to  complain  of  the  hardship  of  carrying  this 
burden  (a  pack  on  making  a  journey)  which  serves  for  their  own 
comfort  and  support  as  well  as  their  husbands  ....  the  fatigue  of 
the  women  is  by  no  means  to  be  compared  to  that  of  the  men.  Their 
hard  and  difficult  employments  are  periodical  and  of  short  duration, 
while  their  husbands'  labours  are  constant  in  the  extreme.  Were  a 
man  to  take  upon  himself  a  part  of  his  wife's  duty,  in  addition  to  his 
own,  he  must  necessarily  sink  under  the  load,  and  of  course  his  family 
must  suffer  with  him"  —  An  account  of  the  History,  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Indian  nations  (1817)  146-7.  As  to  the  universal  cheer 
fulness  of  Indian  women  Zeisberger  is  at  variance  with  his  compatriot. 
"The  Indian  women,"  writes  Loskiel,  "are  more  given  to  stealing,  lying, 
quarreling,  backbiting  and  slandering  than  the  men"  —  History  of  the 
Mission  of  the  United  Brethren,  (1794),  16.  In  our  numerous  references 
to  the  above  mentioned  writers,  in  footnotes,  we  shall  use  the  following 
terminology,  Heckewelder's  History,  Heckewelder's  Narrative,  and  Los- 
kiel's  History. 

8.  Zeisberger,  it  must  always  be  remembered,  is  writing  in  Ohio; 
his    references   to    the   country   to    the    northward   are   the    result    of    his 
acquaintance   with  the   Six   Nations   in  New   York   State. 

9.  The    Onondaga    tribe    of    Six    Nations,    located    near    Syracuse, 
New  York. 

9£.  Zeisberger  seems  here  to  imply  that  the  country  of  the  Shaw- 
anese  was  Kentucky ;  elsewhere  he  clearly  speaks  of  the  Scioto  Valley 
as  but  one  hundred  miles  distant. 

10.  Contrary  to  the  taste  of  other  Indians,  as  the  Dakotas,  School- 
craft,  History,  Pt.  IV,  67. 

11.  Breech  cloth. 

12.  Singularly    enough,    everything    in    an    Indian's    cabin    had    its 
specific  owner.     "Every  individual  knows  what  belongs  to  him,  from  the 
horse   or  cow   down   to   the   dog,    cat,   kitten   and   little   chicken.      For   a 
litter    of    kittens    or    brood    of    chickens    there    are    often    as    many    dif 
ferent   owners   as    there   are    individual   animals.      Thus   while    the    prin 
ciple  of  community  of  goods  prevails  in  the  State,  the  rights  of  property 
are    acknowledged    among    the    members    of    a    family"  —  Heckewelder, 
History,  147-8. 

13.  Indian  Hemp;    Apocynum  cannabium.  L. 

14.  Monsey,    one    of    the    Three    Tribes    of    the    Delawares    living 
chiefly   on   the    Beaver   River. 

15.  Bunks  made  of  boards. 

16.  The   expression   here   is    singular   and   shows   that  the   western,, 
migratory  Iroquois  were  clearly  distinguished  from  those  who  remained 
in  the  "Long  House"  in  New  York  State. 


156  David  Zeisberger  s  History 

17.  The  Rev.   David  McClure   states   that   such   was   the  desire   for 
dancing  among  the   Delaware  Indians  that  "they  are  building  a  dancing 
house    in    this    small    village,    [the    capital    of    the    Delawares    near    the 
present  site  of   Newcomerstown,   O.]    which  will  cost  them  more  labour 
than  one-half  of  the  houses  in  it"  —  Diary,  77.     This  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  volumes   of   early   travel    (1770-1790)    in   the   Middle  West   and 
will  often  be   quoted. 

18.  It   is    interesting   to    compare    the    accounts    of    Zeisberger    and 
Heckewelder,    the    former    a    jotter    down    of    facts,   the   latter   a    formal 
historian.     "The   Indians   are   proud   but   not   vain,"   write   Heckewelder; 
"They   consider   vanity    as    degrading   and   unworthy   the   character   of   a 
man.     This  passion  of  the  Indians  which  I  have  called  pride,  but  which 
might  perhaps,  be  better  denominated  highmindedness,  is  generally  com 
bined  with   a   great   sense    of   honour,   and   not   seldom   produces   actions 
of  the  most  heroic  kind"  —  History,   159,    161.     The  plain,   unpretentious 
words   of   Zeisberger,   often   derogatory  of   the    Indians,   have   a   ring   of 
accuracy  that  is    found    in   almost   no   other  record. 

19.  The  length  of  space  to  which  a  man  can  extend  his  arms. 

20.  "Courage,    art    and    circumspection,    are    the    essential    and    in 
dispensable  qualifications  of  an  Indian  warrior"  —  Heckewelder,  History, 
166.     According  to  Zeisberger's  notion,  how  appropriate  the  first  lines  of 
the  Delaware's  chant  on  going  to  war :     "O  poor  me !"     Id.  204. 

21.  Pontiac's    Rebellion. 

22.  Ottawas. 

23.  Revolutionary  war. 

24.  Heckewelder's    descriptions    of    Indian    abhorrence    of    marital 
infidelity  are  not  borne  out  by   Zeisberger   or   Loskiel.      David   McClure, 
writing  at  Coshocton,  in  1772,  records  :     "Several  of  the  aged  Councillors 
had  lived  with  one  wife  from  their  youth;    but  a  great  part  of  husbands 
and  wives  at  Kekalemahpehoong    [Delaware  capital],  had   separated  and 
taken  others.     I  was  astonished  at  the  profligate  description  which  young 
Killbuck    (whose    father    had    directed   him    to    lodge    in   my   house,    and 
to   wait   on   me),   gave   me   of   himself.      He  slept   in   a   loft,   which   was 
ascended   by  a   ladder  at  the   farther   end   of   the   house.     He   conducted 
a  squaw  up  the  ladder  every  night.     I  asked  him  one  day,  if  it  was  his 
wife?     He    said   no.     I    admonished   him    for   his   conduct.      He   said   he 
was  nineteen  years  old,  and  had  had  several  wives,  and  that  he  wanted 
one   more,    and   he   should   be    happy.     It   is    natural    to    expect   that   but 
few  children  can  be  the  fruit  of  such  unbounded  licentiousness.     On  an 
average  there  are  about  two  or  three  to  a  family"  —  Diary,  91. 

24J.     The  distinction  here  between  "Indians"  and  "savages"  implies 
that  the  former  are  Christian  and  the  latter  non-christian. 

25.  Goschgoschimk,  in  Venango  County,   Pennsylvania,  a  Delaware 
<Monsey)   town  on  the  Allegheny  River  —  Edmund  De  Schweinitz,  Life 
•and  Times  of  David  Zeisberger,  324,  seq.      Few  volumes  relating  to  the 


North  American  Indians. 


167 


Middle  West  of  pre-Revolutionary  and  Revolutionary  days  are  written 
with  the  care  and  scholarly  accuracy  of  this  Life  of  Zeisberger,  as  we 
shall  call  it  in  our  numerous  references.  It  is  a  book  of  very  great  merit. 

26.  Canoes  were  often  buried  in  the  sand  to  preserve  them  through 
the  winter. 

27.  Heckewelder  records  that  he  has  seen  boys  of  ten  and  twelve 
whose  limbs  were  so  contracted  by  colds  or  "'fits  of  sickness"  that  they 
were  useless.     History,  217.     By  all  accounts  pneumonia  and  consumption 
were  exceedingly  common  among  the   Indians;    cf.   McClure,   Diary ,  67. 

28.  Heckewelder   calls   these   bands   Happis;     by   them,    he   asserts, 
Indians    will   carry   a    load   "which   many    a    white   man   would   not    have 
strength   enough  to   raise  from  the  ground"  —  History,  214. 

29.  Probably  boils ;    possibly  syphilitic   sores. 

30.  It  is  of  passing  interest  to  note  some  of  the  remedies  used  by 
the  Indians  as  given  by  the  late  Dr.  Zina  Pitcher,  U.   S.  A.,  in  School- 
craft  History,  Pt.   IV,  pp.  502,  seq. : 


Disease. 


Herb. 


Remarks. 


Fever 

Pleurisy 

Consumption 

Asthma 
Dyspepsia 

Liver    complaint    and 
gravel 


Dysentery   and   Diar 
rhea 


Dropsy 


Amenorrhoea 


Eupatorium,      cambium      of 

horse   chestnut,   butternut, 

etc. 
Asclepias     decumbens,     An- 

themis    cotula    and    Poly- 

gonum  presecoris. 
Poltices  of  mucillage  of  the 

Ulmus  americanus,  etc. 


Saururus,  benzoin,  sassa- 
faras  and  Istodes  foetida. 

Cambium  of  the  Desculus 
glabra,  inglans,  etc. 


A  r  b  u  t  u  s-uva-ursi,  spice- 
wood,  gooseberry  root, 

etc. 

Blackberry,  Geranium  macu- 
latum,  Spirea  totncntosa, 
Quercus  alba.  etc. 

Prickly  ash  (Zanthoxylum 
americanum)  wild  goose 
berry  (Ribes  trifolium}. 

Sassafaras.  spice-wood, 
worm-wood. 


Carthartics. 


Consumption  was 
treated  as  an  ul 
cer  and  little  un 
derstood. 

Palliative  remedies. 

Little  known  save 
among  trib'e.s 
somewhat  civil- 
ized. 


158 


David  Zcisberger's  History 


\ 

Disease.                                    Herb. 

1 

Remarks. 

Hemorrhage 

Powder  of  puff-ball   (Lyco- 

pcrdon     bovista)     pulver 

ized  charcoal. 

Wounds 

Washed    with    decoction    of 

lichen,  bass-wood  or  slip 

pery  elm. 

Great  care  was  giv 

en   to  keeping   up 

the     suppurating 

process  and  keep 

ing  wounds  open. 

Ulcers 

Acorns    calamus    and    caut 

ery. 

Salt  Rheum 

Rumex    crispus    or    yellow 

dock. 

Phlegmon 

Onion  poltices. 

Gonorrhoea 

Various  species  of  genus  Pi- 

mis. 

The  balsaam  used  in 

modern   remedies. 

Syphilis 

Local  applications  as  for  ul 

cers. 

Paralysis 

None. 

Obstetrics  : 

S  a  n  g  u  i  n  a  r  i  a     canaden- 

sis    (blood-root)    used    to 

facilitate  parturition. 

31.  Stings  of  poisonous  reptiles  were  treated  variously  by  the  dif 
ferent  tribes.     The  Senecas  used  a  plant  called  Polygala  senega;    others 
used    Liatris    spicata,    Asclepias    tuberosa,    Prenanthus    alba,    Fraximus 
jitglandifolia,  and  many  applied  locally  Alis-ma  plantago.     Scientists   are 
today  studying,    for  perhaps  the  first  time,   the  action  of  various   forms 
of   venom   and   the   appropriate   remedies    for   each.     The   poison   of   the 
rattler  destroys  the  tissues  and  blood-cells ;    that  of  the  cobra  paralyzes 
the  nervous  system.     See   Dr.  J.   T.   Case,   Good  Health,  June,   1909. 

32.  Heckewelder  distinguishes  between  "good"  and  "bad"  medicine 
men,    terming    the    former    "physicians    and    surgeons"    and    the    latter 
"doctors  or  jugglers,"  but  states  of  these  latter,  "I  am  sorry  that  truth 
obliges    me    to    confess,    that    in    their    profession    they    rank    above    the 
honest    practitioners."      One    whimsical    conceit    of    the    Indian    doctor 
which    well    illustrates    their    superstition    and    "science"    was    that    the 
water  used  to  concoct  an  emetic  must  be  dipped  from  a  stream  against 
the   current,   while    for   a  cathartic   it  must   be   dipped  with   the   current. 
Heckewelder,    suffering    from    a   painful    felon,    was    put    at    ease    within 
half   an  hour  by  an   Indian  woman  who   applied  a  poultice   made   from 
the  root  of  the  common  blue  violet.     Heckewelder,  History,  217-225. 

33.  It  would  seem  here  that  male  practitioners  were  called  to  at 
tend  labor  cases.     Dr.  Pitcher  has  asserted  that,  to  his  knowledge,  only 


North  American  Indians.  159 

women  officiated  under  such  circumstances,  Schoolcraft  History,  Pt.  IV, 
515.  Loskiel  refers  to  the  efficiency  of  female  doctors  in  child-birth. 
History,  110. 

34.  These    primitive    Turkish    baths    were,    unquestionably,    a    great 
means  of  health  to  this  race  which  suffered  so  largely  from  colds.     Dr. 
McClure,  who  gives  an  interesting  description  of  a  sweating  oven  on  the 
Muskingum,    asserts,    however,    that   to   pulmonary    disorders    and    small 
pox,  the  treatment  was  quite   fatal.     Diary,  67. 

35.  The    Unamis,    the   chief   tribe    of    the    Delawares,    lived   on   the 
Tuscarawas  River. 

3f>.  The  Unalochtgos,  the  tribe  of  second  importance,  lived  beside 
the  Tuscarawas. 

37.  The   Monseys   lived   mostly   on   the    Big   Beaver   River. 

38.  Orange  Co.,   N.   Y. 

30.  It  is  refreshing,  in  the  face  of  so  many  idealistic  accounts  of 
primitive  Indian  life  to  read  these  blunt,  plain  statements  of  facts  from 
Zeisberger's  pen.  We  probably  know  more  accurately  concerning  the 
Six  Nations  than  of  any  other  Indians.  One  of  the  earliest  reports 
claims  that  De  Nonville's  soldiers  in  1687  destroyed  a  million  and  a 
quarter  bushels  of  corn  in  four  Seneca  villages.  And  yet  we  know 
that  the  eating  of  children  in  time  of  utter  famine  was  known  among 
the  Senecas  —  Cadwallader  Golden,  History  of  the  Five  Indian  Nations 
(1755)  II,  8.  If  such  destitution  could  exist  in  a  region  exceedingly 
well  watered  and  fertile,  what  of  Indians  not  so  fortunately  placed? 

40.  Bracket  fungus. 

41.  Remains  of  the  Mound-building  Indians.     These  were  found  on 
the  site  of  at  least  one  of  the  Moravian  Mission  towns,  Lichtenau.     De 
Schweinitz,  Life  of  Zeisberger,  433,.  436  Note. 

42.  Unquestionably    a   European   idea;     no    mounds    in    the    Middle 
West  were  high  enough  to  serve  the  purpose  of  rolling  blocks  or  stones. 
The    greater    part    of    the    mounds    so    far    opened    prove    to    have    been 
raised  over  charnel  houses  after  the  latter  had  been  filled   with   bodies. 

43.  These    facts    concerning    the    wooden    wampum    and    the    sub 
stitute   for  wampum  are  of   utmost  interest. 

44.  Allegheny   River. 

45.  Neville's  Island?     This  is  clearly,  the  Delaware  tradition. 

46.  Tennessee  River,  commonly  known  in  early  days  as  the  Chero 
kee    River.      See    A.    B.    Hulbert's,    "Washington's    Tour    to    the    Ohio," 
Ohio  State  Arch,  and  Hist.  Quart.  XVII,   (Oct.  1908),  484. 

46J.     At  the  Treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix? 

47.  Here    begins   Zeisberger's    version    of    the    legend    of    the    con 
quest   of   the    Iroquois    over   the    Delawares,   one   of   the    famous    Indian 
legends.     It  is  possible  that  this  Zeisberger  account  is  the  original  English 
(German)    version    upon    which    so    many    versions    have    been    based. 
Heckewelder    (History    11)    referring  to    the   source   of  his   information. 


160  David  Zeisberger's  History 

cites  Loskiel,  who  had  only  Zeisberger's  manuscript  to  follow.  It  is 
peculiar  that  Heckewelder  should  refer  his  readers  to  an  authority  who 
had  no  first-hand  knowledge.  Turning  to  Loskiel's  version  of  the 
events  which  led  up  to  the  Delawares  being  made  "women"  we  find 
(History,  124,  seq.}  that  Zeisberger's  plain  account  has  been  improved 
upon  by  being  fashioned  into  formal  speeches.  These  begin  as  follows : 

"It  is  not  profitable,  that  all  the  nations  should  be  at  war  with 
each  other,  for  this  will  at  length  be  the  ruin  of  the  whole  Indian  race. 
We  have  therefore  considered  of  a  remedy,  by  which  this  evil  may  be 
prevented.  One  nation  shall  be  the  woman.  We  will  place  her  in  the 
midst,  and  the  other  nations  who  make  war  shall  be  the  man,  and 
live  around  the  woman.  No  one  shall  touch  or  hurt  the  woman,  and 
if  anyone  does  it,  we  will  immediately  say  to  him,  'Why  do  you  beat 
the  woman  ?'  " 

By  comparison  it  will  be  seen  that  Loskiel  has  put  Zeisberger's 
words  into  the  mouth  of  speakers,  whereas  Zeisberger  did  not  include 
his  account  in  quotation-marks,  giving  merely  the  story  as  it  was  told 
to  him.  Loskiel,  by  putting  the  same  words  into  the  mouths  of  the 
speakers  and  phrasing  it  all  in  the  first  instead  of  the  third  person,  as 
Zeisberger  wrote  it,  turned  a  legend  into  a  seemingly  accurate  historical 
document.  Parkman  takes  both  Loskiel  and  Heckewelder  to  task  for 
taking  the  story  in  "good  faith,"  (Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  I,  31)  but 
Loskiel  had  no  reason  to  take  Zeisberger's  account  as  actual  history; 
and  De  Schweinitz  (Life  of  Zeisberger,  47)  states  that  neither  Zeis 
berger  or  Loskiel  argue  in  favor  of  the  story,  while  Heckewelder  does. 
This  forms  an  interesting  example  of  the  evolution  of  a  legend  into 
history:  Zeisberger  tells  the  Delaware  legend,  plainly  and  simply,  in 
the  third  person;  Loskiel  forms  it  into  speeches  in  the  first  person; 
Heckewelder  takes  these  formal  speeches  and  argues  in  their  favor  as 
true  history. 

48.  Gourd    or    pumpkin. 

48J.     See  William  L.  Stone,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  William  John 
son,  214-215. 

49.  Woapanochky,  "a  people  living  toward  the  rising  of  the  sun," 
was  another  name  of  the  Delawares.     Loskiel,  History  I,  2. 

50.  Albany,   N.   Y. 

51.  Bethlehem,    Pa. 

52.  Roccus   lineatus    (Bloch)    an  important  source  of   food  to  the 
early   Virginians   as   attested   by    Captain   John    Smith   and   others. 

53.  Alosa  sapidissima   (Wilson). 

54.  Vernacular  names  of  fishes  are  so  numerous  and  so  variable, 
the   same   common  name  being  applied   to  very   different   fishes   in   dif 
ferent  localities,  that  it  is  hard  to  identify  some  of  these  references  with 
certainty.    This  however  refers  to  Perca  ftavescem*  (Mitchill),  commonly 
known  as  the  yellow  perch. 


North  American  Indians.  161 

55.     Stizostedian    vitrctiin    (Mitchill)    the    pike    or    sauger. 
50.     Lepisostcits  osseiis    (L.) 

57.  Sak'elituts   fontmalis    (Mitchill),    the    speckled    or   brook   trout. 

58.  Anguilla    chrysypa   Rafinesque. 

59.  Phoca    z'itulina    L.,    the    harbour    seal,    common    farther    north, 
though  rare  in  this  latitude  even  in  salt  water.     Their  occurrence  at  Wy 
oming  nearly  200  miles  up   the   Susquehanna   River   is   quite   remarkable, 
though  other  similar  occurrences  have  been  recorded. 

60.  Chamaecy  parts  thy  aides   (L.).  the  white  cedar. 

61.  Alecs  americanus    (Clinton).     The   animals   migrated    south    in 
the   winter  crossing  the   Niagara,   or   the   Lakes   on  the   ice. 

02.  Sal  in  o  salar  Linnaeus,  the  Atlantic  salmon,  formerly  very 
abundant  in  the  Hudson  River  though  now  nearly  or  quite  exterminated 
there. 

I).''.  Anguilld  dirysypa  Rafmosque.  Possibly  the  author  was  more 
familiar  with  the  lamprey  eel,  Ichthyomyson  concolor  (Kirtland)  in  the 
Muskingum  region,  hence  his  reference  to  the  more  slender  head  of 
Anguilla  chrysypa.  However,  inasmuch  as  there  is  but  the  one  true 
eel  in  our  fresh  waters  and  the  lamprey  is  small  and  seldom  seen,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  eels  which  the  author  knew  in  New  York 
and  along  the  Muskingum  were  of  the  same  sort.  In  autumn  there  is 
?.  universal  migration  of  the  adult  eels  to  the  sea  to  spawn.  The  In 
dians,  true  to  their  insight  into  nature,  made  the  best  of  this  opportunity 
for  securing  them  in  great  quantities. 

04.  Niagara   Falls. 

05.  Probably    one    of   the    Three    Sister    Islands. 
00.     Oneida   Lake. 

07.  Cayuga   Lake. 

08.  Seneca   and   Ithaca  Lakes. 

09.  Pyrus  coronaria   L.,   the   American  crab   apple  or   wild  apple. 

70.  Mohawks. 

71.  Reference  here   is   to   Sullivan's   expedition   of    1779.      The   date 
of   the   writing   of   this   history   is    here   shown   to   be    1780. 

72.  Indicating   that   even  with   the  unskilled   cultivation   of   the   In 
dians,   the   corn    in    different   regions    developed   varieties    each    suited   to 
its  particular  locality. 

73.  North   Carolina. 

74.  Fort   Frontenac.   now    Kingston,    Canada. 

75.  One   of   the   most   elaborate   descriptions   of   this   route   through 
Central   Pennsylvania  is   given  in   Francis   Raily's  Journal  of  a   Tour  in 
Unsettled  parts  of  North  America.     Sideling  Hill   is    near   the   Juniata ; 
Laurel    Hill    is    a    continuance    of    Chestnut    Ridge,    the    latter   being   the 
local    name    of    the    range    in    Pennsylvania.      Zeisberger's    mention    of    it 
as  the  important  western  route  at  this  period    (pointing,  as   it   does  well 
back  in   the   eighteenth   century")    is    significant. 

11 


162  David  Zeisberger's  History 

76.  The  parallel  chains  of  the   Blue   Ridge  now  known  as   Second 
and   Third   and   Peters    Mountains,,   being   at   that   time   without   a   name, 
Conrad    Weiser    called    them,    on    the    occasion    of    Zinzendorfs    second 
journey    into    the    Indian    country,    "The    Thurnstein"    in    honor    of    this 
distinguished  personage,  one  of  whose  titles  was  Lord  of  Thurnstein. 

77.  Jack's    Mountain. 

78.  The   present   Erie,    Pa. 

79.  By  way  of   French   Creek.     Perhaps   no   other    authority   gives 
the  name  of  Venango  or  Onenge  as  the  name  of  this  stream. 

80.  Turtle  Creek. 

81.  Ligonier,    Pa. 

82.  Kentucky  River. 

83.  Cuyahoga    River. 

84.  Scioto    River. 

85.  Fragaria   virginiana   Duchesne. 

86.  Rubus    nigrobaccus    Bail,    the    common    blackberry    and    Rubus 
villosus   L..    the    dewberry. 

87.  Rubus    occidcntalis    L. 

88.  Vacciniuin    pennsylvanicum    Lam.,    the     dwarf    blueberry. 

89.  Ribcs   cynosbati  L.,  the  prickly  gooseberry. 

90.  Ribes  floridum    L'Her.,    the    wild    black    current. 

91.  Vacciniuin    macrocarpon    Ait,    the    common    cranberry    and 
Viburnum   opulus  L.,   the  tree  cranberry. 

92.  Primus    scrotina    Ehrh.,    the    common    wild    cherry. 

93.  Primus   pennsylvanica    L.,    and   probably   Primus   cuneata   Raf. 

94.  Primus  pumila  L.,  the  sand  cherry. 

95.  Morns  rubra   L.,  the  common   red  mulberry. 

96.  Primus  americana   Marsh. 

97.  Vitis  aestivalis  Michx. 

98.  Vitis  cordi folia    Michx.   and    Iritis  vulpina    L. 

99.  Pyrus    coronaria    L.    and    Pyrus    angustifolia    Ait,    both    occur 
along  the  Muskingum   and  probably  both  were  used  by  the  Indians. 

100.  Corylus  americana  Walt. 

101.  Carya   species    ( ?)    Doubtless   the   Indians    made   use   of   most 
of   the   half    dozen   edible   species   of   the    region. 

102.  Juglans  cinerea   L. 

103.  Juglans  nigra  L. 

104.  Assimina  triloba  Dunal. 

105.  Benzoin  aestivale   (L.)    the  common  spice-bush,  apparently. 

106.  Spicebush. 

107.  Castanea   dentata    (Marsh). 

108.  An  interesting  reference  to  the  Ohio  Buckeye,  Aesculus  glabra 
Willd. 

109.  Iponioea  pandurata   (L.)   a  relative  of  the  morning  glory  with 
tuberous  roots. 


North  American  Indians.  163 

110.  Podophyllum  peltatum   L..,  the  root  of  which  is   still  a   staple 
medicinal  herb. 

HOa.     Quercus    alba    L.,    the    white    oak. 

llOb.     Quercus   velutina   Lam.,   the   black   or   quercitron   oak. 

llOc.     Quercus  rubra  L.,  red  oak. 

llOd.     Quercus  falcata  Michx.,  Spanish  oak. 

llOe.       Quercus  palustris   Muench.,   the   swamp    Spanish   or  pinoak. 

111.  Doubtless    more    than    three ! 

112.  Fraxinus  americana  L.3  is  the  most  common  one,  though  other 
species  occur  in  the  region. 

113.  Fagus  grandifolia   Ehrh.     There  is  but  one  beech  though  the 
wood   in   some  is   quite    different    in   color    from   that   of   others. 

114.  Sassafras  variifoUuin   (Salisb.) 

115.  Liriodcndron    tulipifcra    L.,    the    tulip    tree,    commonly    called 
poplar. 

116.  Castanca  dent  at  a  (Marsh). 

117.  Tilia  americana  L.,  bass  wood  or  linden. 

118.  Acer  saccharinum   L.,  the  silver  maple  is  most  abundant  near 
the    water,    though    Acer   saccharum    Marsh,    the    sugar    maple,    and    var. 
nigrum   (Mx)   also  occur  in  the  bottom  lands. 

11!).  Carpinus  carol iniana  Walt.,  the  American  hornbeam,  is  usually 
known  as  water  beech  but  this  description  evidently  refers  to  the 
sycamore,  Platanus  occidentals  L.,  sometimes  called  water  beech.  There 
is  no  other  reference  which  could  apply  to  the  sycamore  and  it  was 
then  as  now,  a  conspicuous  tree  of  the  river  banks. 

120.  Crataegus   species    (?)    Several   of   the   65 (  !)    species  accepted 
by   the   seventh  edition   of    Gray's   Manual  occur   here. 

121.  Pyrus   coronaria    L.,    and   Pyrus   angustifolia   Ait. 

122.  Fraxinus  nigra    Marsh.,   the   black   ash. 

123.  Glcditsia    triacanthos   L. 

124.  Cornus  florida  L. 

125.  The    bark    of     Cinchona    succirubra    and    other    sjpecies    of 
Cinchona  from  which  quinine  is  prepared.     The  Cinchonas  grow  wild  in 
the   Andes   Mountains. 

126.  Junipcrus   virginiana   L. 

127.  Picca   mariana    (Mill.)      Black  or  log  spruce. 

128.  Pinus   rigida  Mill.      Pitch  pine. 

129.  Pinus  strobus   L.     White   pine. 

130.  Abies  balsam ca   (L.) 

131.  Pinus  pungcns  Lamb,   the  table  mountain   pine,  presumably. 

132.  Ulmus  americana  L.,  and  V.  racemosa  Thomas. 

133.  Betula  nigra  L.,  the  river  birch. 

134.  Popuhts  tremuloidcs  Michx.,  the  American  aspen. 

135.  Cladrastis  lute  a    (Michx.). 

136.  Loskiel   records   that    Indians    sold   oil   to  the  whites   "at   four 
guineas    a    quart."      History,    118. 


164  David  Zeisberyer's  History 

137.  A    very   questionable    statement. 

138.  It  is  doubtful  what  Zeisberger  means  here  by  "marble;"  pos 
sible  it  was  gritty  sandstone. . 

139.  Iron   Pyrites  or   "Fool's   Gold." 

140.  Kaolin  or   China  clay;    colors   in  clays  are   due  to   impurities. 
The    black    clay    which    burns    white    evidently    contained    carbonaceous 
matter. 

141.  Yellow  ochre. 

142.  Possibly    a    decoction    made    from    polk-berries    which    would 
stimulate   the   secretion   of   the   glands   of   the   breasts,    etc. 

143.  Rhus    toxicodendron    L.,    the    poison    vine    or    poison   ivy. 

144.  Rhus  vernix  L.,  the  poison  sumac,  our  most  poisonous  plant. 

145.  Not    used    by    the    medical   profession    today. 

146.  Odocoileus  virginianus   (Boddaert). 

147.  The  introduction  of  the  rifle  was  the  first  step  in   destroying 
Nature's  balance  as  applied  to  man  and  the  native  wild  animals.     Doubt 
less  the  deer  and  buffalo  easily  held  their  own  in  spite  of  the  onslaughts 
of  the  Indians  until  the  rifle  gave  the   Indians  a   tremendous   advantage 
as   compared  with   their    former   weapons. 

148.  Ursus  americanus   Pallas. 

149.  In  many  cases  the  Indians  multiplied  the  species  of  our  larger 
mammals,  basing  their  ideas  on   one  or  two  unusually  large  individuals 
they   happened   to    meet,    or    on    some    peculiar   condition    of    the   pelage. 
There  is  only  one  species  of  bear  known  from  eastern  United  States. 

150.  Ccrvus  canadensis   (Erxleben)   the  wapiti,  or  "American  Elk." 
The  author  is  correct.     The  wapiti  is  nearly  related  to  the  stag,   Ccrvus 
elaphus  L.,  of  Europe  and  is  not  an  elk  at  all. 

Bison  bison   (L.) 

Felis   couguar   Kerr. 

Lynx  ruff  us    (Guldenstaedt). 

154.  Vulpes   fulvus    (Dasmarest). 

155.  Urocyon   cinereoargcntcus    (Schreber). 

156.  A  black  phase  of  the  red  fox  Vulpes  fulvus. 

157.  Procyon  lot  or   (L.) 

158.  Lutra  canadensis    (Schreber). 

159.  Castor  canadensis  Kuhl. 

160.  The    steel    trap    was    another    white    man's    invention    which, 
placed  in   the   hands   of   the    Indians,  proved   most    destructive   to   some 
of  the  animals  which  formerly  held  their  own  against  the  less   effective 
methods   of   the    Indians.     The   price   paid    for   the   pelts   by  the   whites, 
was  of  course  an  additional   factor  in   the  destruction  of   many  of  the 
native  animals. 

161.  Didelphis  virginiana   Kerr. 

162.  Certainly    open    to    question    and    probably    merely    an    Indian 
belief. 


North  American  Indians.  165 

163.  Mephitis  mephitis  Schreber. 

164.  Erethison  dorsatiun    (L.) 

165.  Mustela  amerieana  Turton,  the  pine  marten  or  American  sable, 
and   the  larger  Mustela  pennautii  Exleben,   the   fisher,   or  fisher   marten, 
both  range  into  New  York. 

166.  Alces   americanus   Clinton. 
107.     Fiber    zibethicus    (L). 

168.  A   melanistic   form   of  the  next.     At  times  in   some   localities 
it  is  very  abundant. 

169.  Scinrus  carolinensis   Gmelin,   the   common   grey   squirrel. 

170.  Sciunis    hudsonicv.s   loqnax   Bangs. 

171.  Tamias  striatus  lysteri  (Rich.) 

172.  Mannota  nionax   (L.) 

.173.     Lyn.v   canadensis    Kerr,    the    Canada    lynx. 

174.  Lepus  Horidanus   mearnsi  Allen. 

175.  Lepus    ainericaints    I'irginianus    Harlan,    the    varying    hare. 

176.  Doubtless    partial    albinos    of    the    common    deer,    Odocoileus 
I'irginiainis. 

177.  An    instance   of    the    erroneous    belief    that   an    animal   in    any 
way  conspicuously  different  from   its   fellows  becomes  a  leader.     On  the 
contrary,    the    unfortunate    variant    is    often    mistreated    by    his    fellows 
and    sometimes    even    ostracised.      "Sentiment"    plays    no    part    in    the 
selection   of   leaders.     It   is   simply   a  question    of    superior   strength   and 
endurance. 

178.  Branta   canadensis    (L.),   the   common  wild  goose,   or    Canada 
goose.      Other    species    occur    but    are    rare    and    probably    never    reared 
their   young   hereabouts. 

179.  Aix  sponsa    (L.)    the   beautiful    wood   duck.     The   young   are 
said  to  be  carried  to  the  water  in  the  bill  of  the  parent. 

180.  Both  Mcrcjns  americanus  Cassin   the  American  merganser  or 
sheldrake,   and  LopJiodytes  cucullatus    (L.,)    the  hooded   merganser  were 
formerly  abundant  in  this  region. 

181.  Probably    the    hooded    merganser,    which    is    said    to    be    quite 
palatable,    the    flesh    of    the    other    mergansers    being    rank   and    fishy. 

182.  This  is  evidently  Grus  mexicana   (Mull),  the  sandbill  crane,  a 
bird  now  very  rare  in  Ohio. 

183.  Olor    columbianus     (Orel.),    the    whistling     swan,    and     Olor 
buccinator    (Rich.),   the   trumpeter   swan,  have  been   uncommon  birds   in 
this  locality,  the  latter  formerly  breeding  here.     Both   fit  the  description 
given.      The    former  is    now   much    less   rare   than   the  other. 

184.  Meleagris  galopavo   sihestris  Vieill. 

185.  Bonasa  umbellus  (L.),  the  ruffed  grouse  or  pheasant,  a  beau 
tiful,  harmless  and  valuable  bird  now  in  danger  of  extermination  if  not 
rigidly  protected. 

186.  This  apparently  refers  to    Tympanuchus  americanus    (Reich.), 
the   prairie  hen,   now   exterminated    in    Ohio  and    not   generally   supposed 


166  David  Zeisbergcr's  History 

to  have  lived  as  far  southeast  as  the  Muskingum  region,  though  it  may 
possibly  refer  to  the  heath  hen,  Tympanuchus  cupido  (L.),  once  dis 
tributed  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia,  though  doubtfully  along  the 
Muskingum,  now  extinct  except  on  Martha's  Vineyard  Island,  Mass.  The 
heath  hen  is  smaller  than  the  ruffed  grouse  however. 

187.  Ectopistes    migratonus     (L.),    the    passenger    pigeon,    perhaps 
extinct,    or   if    not   already,   it   is   most   certain   to  become   so. 

188.  Zcnaidtira    inner oura    carolincnsis    (L.) 

189.  Colinus  virginianus    (L.),   the   bobwhite.     The  quail  was   for 
merly,  while  the  dense  forests  were  still  undisturbed,  much  less  abundant 
and  generally  distributed  than  in  more  recent  years.     One  Ohio  ornithol 
ogist,   J.    M.   Wheaton,   goes   so    far   as   to   say   that   " —  it   was    probably 
absent    or    at    least   confined   to    but    few    localities    in    the    State    at    the 
time   of   its    first    settlement    and   has    steadily    increased    in    numbers    as 
the    forest    has    been    cleared    away."      Report    on    the    birds    of    Ohio, 
Rep.  Geol.   Surv.   Ohio,   (1882)    IV,   Pt.   I,  449. 

190.  Haliaeetus    leucocephalus    (L.),    the    bald    eagle. 

191.  Probably    a    young   bald    eagle.      The    young    are    three    years 
in   attaining   the   adult   plumage,    and   often   contend   viciously    with    the 
parents  for  the  possession  of  the  nest  to  which  the  parents  return  year 
after    year.       Possibly    this     may    have    been     a    golden     eagle,    Aqiiila 
chrysaetos  (L.),  though  it  has  apparently  always  been  rare  in  the  region 
and    is   not    very   pugnacious. 

192.  Elanoides  forficatus  (L.),  the  swallow-tailed  kite,  another  beau 
tiful,    beneficial    and    entirely    harmless    great    bird    which    is    almost    ex 
tinct  and  will  probably  never  be  seen  in  Ohio  again,  thanks  to  the  skill 
of  the  brainless  hunter! 

193.  The  author   did   not   distinguish  between   the  red-tailed   hawk, 
Buteo    borealis    (Gmel.)    and    the    red-shouldered    hawk    Biitco    lineatus 
(Gmel.),  the  two  commoner   species   of  large  hawk. 

194.  Meaning    probably    Falco    peregrinus    anatuin     (Bonap.)     the 
peregrine  falcon  or  duck  hawk,  a  near  relative  of  the  European  "falcon 
gentil  of  song  and  story." 

195.  Falco   colwnbarius   L. 

196.  Mclanerpes    crythrocephalus    (L.) 

197.  Dryobates   pubcsccns    medianus    (Swains.),    the    downy   wood 
pecker,   and  Dryobates  villosus    (L.),   the   hairy  woodpecker,    are   almost 
alike  except  in    size.     Doubtless  they  were  not   distinguished.     The    for 
mer,  the  smaller  one.,  is  much  the  more  abundant. 

198.  Colaptes  auratus  lutcus  Bangs,  the  flicker  or  yellow  hammer. 

199.  Conurus  carolincnsis   (L.),  the  Carolina  paroquet,  now  almost 
extinct    and    long    since    disappeared    from    Ohio,    another    victim    of    the 
sportsman's   gun   and   the   milliner's   art. 

200.  Gavia    inline  r    (Briinn.) 


North  American  Indians.  167 

201.  It  seems  hard  to  determine  what  this  refers  to  but  it  is  most 
likely   the   second  year   bald   eagle.     The   young   requires   three   years   to 
acquire  the  adult  plumage. 

202.  Ceryle  alcyon    (L.),   the   kingfisher,   which   nests   in   a  hole  in 
the  bank. 

203.  Ardca    herodias   L.,   the  great   blue   heron. 

204.  Strix  varia    (Barton),   the   barred   owl  and   Bubo   virginianus 
(Gmel.),  the  great  horned  owl,  were  both  abundant  in  early  days.     The 
small    owl    referred    to    is    doubtless    the    ubiquitous    screech    owl,    Otus 
asio    (L.)    though   several   other   owls  occur   in  the  region. 

205.  Corvus  braciiyrhynchos  Brehm. 

206.  Cathartes   aura   septentrionalis  Wied. 

207.  Corvus  corax  principalis  Ridgw.     Ornithologists  have  believed 
that  in  Ohio  the  raven  occurred  only  in  the  northern  part.     This  record 
for    southern    Ohio    is    as   interesting   as    authentic. 

208.  Butorides  virescens   (L.),  the  green  heron  or  fly-up-the-creek, 
is   meant. 

200.  The  author,  without  doubt  here  refers  to  Plancsticus 
migratorius  L.,  the  common  American  robin.  A  European  bird,  Merula 
merula,  a  near  relative  of  our  robin,  is  black,  has  habits  like  our  robin, 
and  is  commonly  known  as  the  blackbird.  Before  the  white  settlers 
came  the  robin  doubtless  lived  in  open  places  in  the  forest,  so  that  in 
the  author's  experience  it  was  met  with  only  in  breaks  in  the  forest, 
usually  remote  from  the  Indian  villages.  With  the  opening  up  of  clear 
ings  the  robin  made  acquaintance  with  the  white  man  and  came  to  live 
in  open  groves  and  orchards.  This  the  robin  did  in  common  with  many 
of  our  other  native  birds  which  formerly  lived  only  in  the  open  places 
in  the  forest.  With  the  coming  of  the  white  settlers  these  birds  found 
congenial  homes  in  the  clearings  and  orchards  where  they  were  also  less 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  predaceous  birds  and  mammals. 

210.  Sialia  sialis   (L.) 

211.  Mimus   polyglottos    (L.)   Very    rare    in    the    locality   now. 

212.  Astragulinus    tristis    (L.),    the    American    goldfinch   or   yellow 
bird. 

213.  Icterus   galbula    (L.),    the    Baltimore    oriole. 

214.  Piranga  rubra   (L.),  the  summer  tanager  or  summer  red-bird. 

215.  Piranga  erythromelas  Vieill.,  the   scarlet  tanager. 

216.  The  European   starling  is  a  member  of  the  black-bird  family 
(Icteridae)    hence    this    reference    is    to    our    black-birds,    of    which    the 
common    species    are    Quiscalus    quiscula    aeneus    (Ridgw.)    the    bronzed 
grackle  or  crow   black-bird,   Molothrus  atcr    (Bodd.),   the  cow-bird,   and 
Agelains    phoeniceus    (L.),    the    red-winged    black-bird. 

217.  Dumetella  carolinensis   (L.) 

218.  The   many   dull-colored   sparrows    (Fringillidae),   most   of   the 
thrushes    (Turdidae),    probably    some    of    the    warblers,    (Mniotiltidae), 


168  David  Zeisberger's  History 

and  doubtless  other  of  the  smaller  birds  are  ail  here  referred  to  as 
finches. 

219.  Bacolopluis  bicolor  (L.),  the  tufted  titmouse,  and  probably 
also  Panis  atricapiUus  (L.),  the  chickadee. 

•220.  Though  other  species  occur,  Thryothonts  ludovicianus  (Lath.). 
the  Carolina  wren  is  the  most  abundant  and  most  conspicuous  species 
in  this  region. 

221.  Archilochus    colubris    (L.),    the    ruby-throated    humming-bird. 

222.  Cro talus    horridns.    L. 

223.  Ancistrodon    contort  rix    (L.) 

224.  Hctcrodon  platyrhinus  Latr.    (probably  var.  niycr)   the  spread 
ing  viper  or  hissing  adder,  an  entirely  harmless  snake  generally  thought 
poisonous. 

225.  Apparently  refers   to  Natrix  fasciata  erythrogaster  Shaw,   the 
red-bellied  water-snake.     The  aquatic  habits  would  seem  to  indicate  this 
species.     It  is   a  harmless  snake  though  generally  thought  poisonous. 

226.  Copperheads,    Ancistrodon    contortrix    (I..),    with    the    tail,    as 
described,  somewhat   horny  in  appearance. 

227.  Zatnenis  constrictor    (L.,)    black   snake  or  blue   racer. 

228.  Natrix  fasciata  sipcdon    (L.) 

229.  Entaeuia    sirtalis    (L.),    the    garter    snake. 

230.  Liopcltis  vcrnalis    (Dekay),   the   green   or   grass   snake. 

231.  Stizostedion   vitremn    (Mitchill),    the   pike   perch    or  jack    sal 
mon.     The   former   large   size   of  this   fish   is   attested  by  the   following: 
"The  pike  is  the  king  of  fish  in  the  western  rivers.     Judge  Gilbert  Devoll 
took    a    pike    in    the    Muskingum    which    weighed    nearly    one    hundred 
pounds,   on   the   2nd   day   of   July,    1788.     He  was   a   tall   man   but   when 
the    fish    was    suspended    on    the    pole    of    the    spear    from    his    shoulder, 
its  tail  dragged  on  the  ground,  so  that  is  was  about  six   feet  in   length. 
This  enormous  fish  was  served  up  on  the  4th  of  July  at  a  public  dinner." 
S.   P.  Hildreth,  Pioneer  History,  498. 

232.  Refers  to  one  or  more  than  one  species  of  sucker.     Probably 
Moxostoina  anrolcuin  (Le  Seur),  the  common  red-horse,  was  most  taken, 
though  Catostoinns  commersonii  (Lacepede),  the  white  sucker,  Cvclcptus 
clon  gains    (Le    Seur),    the    black-horse,    and    other    species    are    not    un 
common. 

233.  Ictiobus     cyprinella      (Cuvier     &     Valenciennes),     the     large 
mouthed  buffalo,  Ictiobus  bnbahis    (Rafinesque),   the  small-mouthed  buf 
falo,    and    Ictiobus    urns    (Agassiz),    the    black    buffalo,    are    species    re 
sembling   each    other    closely.     All    occur   in   the   region. 

234.  The   calcareous    earstones    or   otoliths. 

235.  Several   species   of   catfish   occur  in   the    Muskingum.     Among 
the  valuable   food  species  are  Ictalurus  pnnctatns    (Rafinesque),  the  blue 
cat,     Amchirus     hicitstris     (Walbaum),     the     Mississippi     cat,     Ameiurus 
Hebiilosus  (Lc  Sueur),  the  bull  head,  and  Lcptops  olivaris   (Rafinesque), 
the  mud  cat.     The  Ohio  catfish  sometimes  weigh  sixty  or  seventy  pounds. 


North  American  Indians.  169 

236.  Acipenser  rubicundus  Le  Sueur. 

237.  Lepisosteus    osscus    (L.),    the    gar    pike. 

238.  Poly  don   spat  hula    (Walbaum),   the   spoon-bill  cat. 

239.  Aplodinotus  grunniens  Refmesque,  the  white  perch,  called  also 
fresh  water  drum   in   allusion   to  its  producing  a   grunting  or  drumming 
noise. 

240.  Perca   flavesccns    (Mitchill). 

241.  Anguilla  chrysypa  Rafinesque.     Possibly  the  author  was  more 
familiar   with    the    so-called   lamprey   eel,   Ichthyomyzon   concolor    (Kirt- 
land)    (cf.   note  03),   in  the  region   of   the   Muskingum. 

242.  This  is  a  very  peculiar  reference  to  the  water  dogs,  Nectnrus 
maculatus      Rafinesque,      the      water      dog      with      external      gills,      and 
Cryptobranchus    alleganiensis    (Daudin),    the    hell-bender    or    water    dog 
without   external  gills. 

243.  Trionyx  spinijer  (Le  Sueur),  the  common  soft  shelled  turtle. 

244.  Cistudo  Carolina   (L.),   the  common  box  or  wood  tortoise. 

245.  There   are  many   species   of  mussels  belonging  to  the  genera, 
Unto,  Anodonta,  Lampsilis,  etc.,   occurring   in  the   region   and  the   shells 
of  several   of   these  have   a   colored   nacrous   layer. 

246.  Other    Unio   species    (?). 

247.  The    snails,    most    likely    referring    to    the    larger    species    of 
Helix    and    related    forms,    were    innocent    of    any    connection    with    the 
gad  flies. 

248.  In    places    where    cattle    destroy    the    weeds    and    other    dense 
vegetation,   conditions  arc   not   agreeable   either  to  the   snails  or  the  gad 
iiies,  hence  both  are  less  abundant.     These  gad  flies   (family  Tabanidae), 
Tabanus,  Chrysops,  etc.,  more  commonly  known  as  the  horse  fly,  deposit 
their  eggs  on  aquatic  plants  near  the  surface  of  the  water  and  the  larvae 
live    in   the    mud    and    water    feeding    upon    various    soft    bodied    aquatic 
animals,   snails   among  the   rest,  but  of  course   not  upon  the  land   snails 
which   the   author   apparently  had  in   mind. 

249.  The    frog   with    the   call    described    is   one    of    the   tree    frogs, 
Hyla  pickeringii  Storer,  which  lives  near  the  water  in   spring  and  early 
summer.      The    Hylas   go    to    the    water  very   early    in    spring   to    deposit 
their  eggs.     The  most  common   Hyla  is  Hyla  versicolor  Le  Conte.     The 
frogs   the   Mingoes   caught   were  doubtless  not  the   little   hylas  but  more 
likely  the  leopard   frog,  Rana  z'irescens  Kalm,  and  the  green   frog,  Rana 
clamata   Daudin. 

250.  Rana  clamata   Daudin. 

251.  Rana   catcsbiana    Shaw. 

252.  It    would    be    interesting    to    know    if    the    pestiferous    house 
mouse,    Mus    mitsculus    L.,    had    even    then    reached    this    locality.      The 
reference  is  most  likely  to  the  white  footed  mouse,  Peromyscus  lencopus 
(Rafinesque.) 


170  David  Zeisberger's  History 

2-53.  The  reader  will  not  fail  to  note  that  Zcisberger,  writing  at 
the  beginning  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  continually 
pictures  the  Indian  as  he  once  was ;  his  tenses  are  largely  past  tenses 
and  he  shows  the  contemporary  Indian  as  a  degenerate.  It  will  be  re 
membered  that  Pontiac's  appeal  to  the  red  race  in  1763  was  for  re 
generation,  for  the  abandonment  of  the  practices  learned  of  the  white 
man  and  readoption  of  the  lost  arts  of  forest  life  which  were  rapidly 
being  forgotten.  Lack  of  respect  for  old  age  was  one  of  the  im 
portant  signs  of  racial  degeneration.  Does  this  apply  to  the  red  race 
only?  Heckewelder's  chapter  on  "Respect  for  the  Aged,"  pictures  the 
red  man  in  the  primitive  state  but  his  tenses  are  present  tenses,  though 
writing  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  History,  1-52-158. 

254.  Heckcwelder    states    that    when   parents    negotiate    a    marriage 
the    bridegroom's    mother    acts    as    negotiatrix.      The    latter    "begins    her 
duties  by  taking  a  good  leg  of  venison,  or  bear's  meat     .     .     to  the  house 
where    the    bride    dwells,    not    forgetting    to    mention,    that    her    son    has 
killed  it/'     The  bride's  mother  soon  brings  in  return  some  fruit  or  handi 
work  produced  by  her   daughter.     If  both  the  children   expressed   them 
selves    favorably   towards    the    respective    gifts,    the    matter    \vas    quickly 
arranged;     if   not,    the   affair   was   at    an    end. 

255.  A    Yellow    ochre,    found    near    the    Muskingum,    when    burnt, 
made    a    rich    red    paint,    which    Indians    came    many    miles    to    obtain. 
Vermillion    River    in    Ohio    derived    its    name    from    the    clay    there    ob 
tained    for  painting;    the   same   was   true    of    Paint   Creek. 

256.  Figures    of    animals    being    most    commonly    used,    especially 
the   turtle,    deer,    bear   and   wolf. 

257.  Heckcwelder   records :     "The   women   make   use  of   vermillion 
in    painting   themselves    for    dances,    but    they   are    very   careful   and   cir 
cumspect  in  applying  the  paint,  so  that  it  does  not  offend  or  create  sus 
picion    in    their    husbands;     there   is    a   mode    of    painting   which    is    left 
entirely  to  loose  women  and  prostitutes."     History,  196. 

258.  The    Revolutionary   war. 

250.  The  Delaware  leader  often  called  King  Newcomer,  from  his 
capital  Xewcomerstown  or  Gekelemukpechunk,  Ohio,  who  refused  to 
attend  Bouquet's  treaty  in  1764  at  Coshocton.  A  generous  friend  of 
the  Moravians.  See  De  Schweinitz,  Life  and  Times  of  Zeisberger, 
366,  seq. 

260.  The    writer    speaks    from    notable    experience,    the   archives   of 
the  Six  Nations,  than  which  no  Indian  archives  were  of  equal  moment, 
were   deposited  in  Zeisberger's  house  at  Onondaga  during  his   residence 
at  that  mission.     See  Bethlehem  Diary,  Aug.  2,   1755. 

261.  4  s.  4  d. 

262.  The  primitive  wampum  was  made  of  pieces  of  wood  variously 
stained  with  different  colors. 

263.  Containing    four,    eight    or    twelve    fathoms    of    wampum. 

264.  A  most  interesting  fact  perhaps  noted  by  no  other  authority. 


North  American  Indians.  171 

265.  Little    Turtle,    the    famous    Miami    Chief,    was   such    by   choice 
and    not    by    birth ;      for,    though    his    father    was    a    Miami    chief,    his 
mother  was   of   common   stock. 

266.  A   terrible   scene   of   drunkenness    in    the   capital   of   the    Dela- 
wares  on  the  Muskingum  is  described  by  Dr.  McClure,  Diary  73-76. 

267.  The   famous   Delaware   leader  who   assisted   Netawatwees   and 
befriended    and    favored    the    Colonies    in    the    Revolution ;     Loskiel    de 
scribes    him   as   the   man   who    ''kept   the    chiefs   and    council    in   awe"  — 
History  III,   101. 

268.  It   happens  to   be   a   matter   of   record  that  both   Netawatwees 
and   White   Eyes   transgressed    each   their    authority   during   the    Revolu 
tion,  the  former  taking  the   initiative   for   war    (De   Schweinitz,  Life   of 
Zeisberger,   415)    and   White    Eyes   overstepping    the   bounds    on    the    oc 
casion  of  his  visit  to  the  American   Congress    (Id.  438.) 

269.  The    battle    at    Point    Pleasant    in    Dunmore's    War    between 
General    Lewis   and    Cornstalk's    Shawanese   was   the   notable   example   of 
Indian   preservation  of  the  bodies  of  their  dead   from  capture.     During 
the   night    after    the    engagement    all    the    killed    and    wounded    were    re 
moved   across   the   Ohio   River   unknown  to   the  white  army. 

270.  A  gourd  or  pumpkin. 

271.  The   Revolution. 

272.  Treaty   of   Fort    Stanwix? 
Catawbas. 

Mohicans,    a    New    England    tribe. 

275.  Twightwees,  called  "Flatheads"   in   Pennsylvania,  the  Miamis. 

276.  Wawiachtenos,    located   in   Indiana. 

277.  Kickapoos,    settled    west   of    Lake    Michigan. 

278.  Tukashas  ?  a  western  tribe. 

279.  Potawatomies    of    Indiana. 

280.  Kaskuskias,    located    on   the    river    of   the    same   name. 

281.  Wabash. 

282.  Creeks. 

283.  Zeisberger  here  follows  Delaware  traditions.     The   Shawanees 
were  permitted  to  settle  in  Pennsylvania  by  the  Six  Nations.     According 
to  the  legend   given   by   Heckewelder,    (History,  70-71)    there   was   bitter 
warfare    between    the    Shawanese    and    the    Delawares. 

284.  Wyoming. 

285.  Neville's   Island,  below   Pittsburg? 

286.  Kittaning,    Armstrong    County,    Pennsylvania,    at    the    end    of 
the   Kittaning  Trail   or   "Ohio    Path,"   as   called   on    Scull's   map. 

287.  Economy,    Pa. 

288.  Reference  here  is  to  Dunmore's  War,   1774,  and  the  depot  of 
Cornstalk   at    Point    Pleasant,    West   Virginia. 

289.  Chippewas. 

290.  Wyoming,    Pennsylvania. 


172  David  Zeisbercjer's  History 

201.     Big    Bone   Lick,   Kentucky. 

291  \ r.  This  information  is  of  great  value.  It  makes  sure  the  fact 
that  the  Hurons  were  identical  with  the  Talamatans  mentioned  by  Cyrus 
Thomas,  "Indian  Trihcs  in  Prehistoric  Times,"  Mag.  Amer.  History,  XX, 
a.  (Sept.  1888.) 

292.  White  Eyes  declared  the  Delawarcs  independent  at  Pitts- 
bur:?  in  1775,  but  the  Iroquois  refused  to  admit  this  until  the  treaty 
of  Greenville  in  1705.  Cf.  Heckenwelder,  History,  52-53;  also  De 
Schweinitz,  Life  of  Zeisbergcr,  253. 

203.  Gelelemend.      The    weakness    of    this    chief    is    fully    described 
by    De    Schweinitz,   Life   of  Zeisbergcr,   473,  seq.     The   Europeans   men 
tioned    may    have    included    General    Morgan.    Matthew    Elliott,    Simon 
Girty,   etc. 

204.  The   Delawares   arc   said  to  have  been   so  called   because   they 
were    found    on    the    river    named    from    Lord    De    La    Ware. 

205.  Sioux. 

206.  Soup. 

207.  Calico. 

208.  Such   a   compact   seems   to   have   existed   between   White   Eyes 
and  the  noted  warrior  Glikkikan.     De  Schweinitz,  Life  of  Zcisberger,  404. 

200.  An  extremely  interesting  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the 
name  "Big  Knives",  the  story  here  has  truer  ring,  to  our  minds,  than 
that  which  states  that  the  tale  came  from  Colonel  Gibson  and  his 
sword.  Cf.  C.  H.  Mitchner,  Historic  Events  in  the  Muskingum  and 
Tuscarazvas  Valleys,  143. 

300.  Nantocoke,  corrupted  from  Nechticok.     The  tribe,  descendants 
of  the   Delawares,   lived   on   the   Maryland   river  of  the   same   name. 

301.  Heckewelder    states     in    his    chapter    on    "Superstition"     that 
a   white  man   once   informed   him   that   a   noted   sorcerer    once   confessed 
that    the    source   of   their   power    was    mental,    the    stronger   mind    acting 
on   the  weaker.     "Such   is    the   credulity   of   many,"   the    sorcerer    stated, 
"that  if  I  only  pick  a   little  wool   from  my  blanket   and   roll   it  between 
my  fingers  into  a  small  round  ball     .     .     it  is  immediately  supposed  that 
I  am  preparing  the  deadly  substance  with  which   I  mean  to  strike  some 
person   or  other."  —  History,  233-4. 

30H.     Great  Kanawha.     The  reference  is  to  Dunmore's  War. 

301§.  Concerning  this  remark  we  can  only  say  with  De  Schweinitz, 
"We  neither  adopt  these  views  of  Zeisberger,  nor  pronounce  them  ab 
surd.  In  the  present  aspect  of  demonolgy,  opinions  of  this  kind  remain 
an  open  question."  Life  of  Zeisberger,  341.  Zeisberger's  chief  experience 
with  sorcerers  seems  to  have  been  in  the  Seneca  country  at  the  Monsey- 
town  of  Goschgoschunk  on  the  Allegheny.  Here  the  sorcerers  banded 
together  in  a  conspiracy  to  undo  the  missionaries  work  and  drive  them 
off.  Id.  341. 

302.  1748-0. 


North  American  Indians.  173 

303.  Waketameki,   the    Indian   town   near   Dresden.   O.,   was    called 
"Vomit    Town''    by    Indian   traders    because    some    of    its    inhabitants    at 
tempted   to    achieve    salvation   by   emetics.     The   reference   here    may    be 
to  these  poor  dupes.     Cf.   De  Schweinitz,  Life  of  Zcisbergcr,  383. 

304.  Big     Stillwater     Creek,    was    G  eg  elemukpe  chunk    Sipo.      The 
town  was  the  first  Delaware  Capital  at  its  junction  with  the  Muskingum 
near  Xcwcomerstown,  Ohio ;    spelled  Gekelemukpechuenk  by  Loskiel  and 
Kekalemahpehoong    by    Dr.    David    McClure. 

305.  Like    the    famous    eat-all    feasts   of    the   northern   nations. 
30(>.     Monseys. 

307.  Mohicans. 

308.  Or    Iroquois   and   Algonquin. 

309.  Minisink,  Orange  County,  N.  Y. 
309. V.  Probably  Cassiopeia. 

310.  Hirundimdac. 

311.  Macrorhamphus   griseus    (Probably). 

312.  Larus    (sp.?) 

313.  Aegialitis  vocifera,  larger  variety. 

314.  Agelaius  phoeniceus. 

315.  Antrostoma  vociferus. 

316.  Zenaidura  macroura. 

317.  Chordeiles  virginianus. 

318.  Apina. 

319.  Vespina. 

320.  Sc'mroptcms  volana. 

321.  Crotalus  honidus.     Probably  a  young  specimen. 

322.  Laurus  (sp.?). 


174 


Dai'id  Zeisberger's  History 


INDEX. 


A. 


Aboriginal  Races  of  North  America,  The, 

see    Drake. 
Account    of    the    History,    Manners    and 

Customs   of   the  Indian  Nations,  An, 

see   Heckewelder. 
Achewilens,   a   "rich  man,"   146. 
Achsunnamunschi,     Delaware     name     for 

sugar  maple,  48. 

Admonition,    Indians    resent,    120. 
Adultery,   retaliated,  77. 
Age,  few  Indians  knew  their,  145. 
Aged,   charms  made  by,  83-84;   favored  in 

the  chase,  91;  well  cared  for,  123. 
Agriculture,     Christian    Indians    give    up 

hunting   for,   14.    cf.   44. 
Allegheny,    region    described,    42;    weather 

in,   42. 

Allegheny    mountain,    mentioned,    42. 
Allegheny     River,     early     name,    33;     de 
scribed,   42-43. 

Alligewi  Sipo,  see  Allegheny  River. 
Ambassadors,    how    received,   93. 
Amenorrhoea,  treatment  for,  157. 
Ancestors,  prowess  long  remembered,  146- 

147. 

April,   name   for  month  of,  145. 
Arithmetic,  Indians  made  no  progress  in, 

144. 
Arrow-heads,     knives     made     from     flint, 

shaped  like,   28. 
Ash  tree,  47. 
Aspen  trees,  52. 
Asthma,  treatment   for,  157. 
August,   name  of  month  of,  145. 


B. 


Babes,  carrying  boards  falling  into  disuse 
in  1780,  85-86;  common  cause  of  in 
jury  to,  85. 

Baily,  Francis  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  un 
settled  parts  of  North  America,  cited, 
161. 

Ball,  game  described,  118. 

Banta,   Dr.   A.   M.,  mentioned,  9. 

Beads,    strings    of,    94. 

Bean,   see   "Earth   bean". 

Bear,  season,  13;  in  swamps,  38;  in  Mus- 
kingum  Valley,  57;  dens  noted  by 


hunters,  57;  hunted  in  the  spring,  57; 
love  of  nuts,  57;  skins  of  little  value, 
57;  "King"  of,  58;  fond  of  pigs,  58; 
seized  women  and  children,  58;  more 
common  in  Iroquois  country,  58;  and 
panther  fight,  60;  sacrificed  to  dead, 
140. 

Beard,    pulled   out,    12. 

Beaver,  season,  13;  described,  61;  scarce 
in  1780,  61;  fur  valuable,  61;  caught 
by  perfumed  decoy,  61;  dams,  de 
scribed,  61-62;  tail  edible,  62;  hunted 
constantly,  62. 

Beds,    nature    of,    17,    155;    clothing,    17. 

Bed-bugs,    common    in    Indian    lodges,   75. 

Beach,    white   and   red,   47. 

Bees,  unknown  in  Ohio  before  Moravians 
came,  152. 

Belts,  custom  of  giving,  32;  see  wampum. 

Bequests,  of  dead  carefully  carried  out, 
88. 

Berries,    Muskingum  Valley,  45. 

Beson,    described,    25;    see    doctors. 

Bethlehem   Diary,    cited,    170. 

Bibliography,    Zeisberger,   10-11. 

Big  Beaver  River,  Monseys  lived  on,  159. 

Big  Bone  Lick,  mentioned,  110. 

"Big  Knives",  origin  of  expression,  122, 
372. 

Big    Stillwater    Creek,    mentioned,    173. 

Birds,  of  Middle  West,  65  seq. 

Blanc  Barbus,  The,  mentioned,  154. 

Blackbird,    mentioned,   69. 

B'lack  Snake,  in  fight  with  a  hawk,  72. 

Blem,   Turkey  tribe,  92. 

Bliss,  E.  F.,  Diary  of  David  Zeisberger, 
mentioned,  4. 

Blood-letting,  common,  27;  method  of, 
27. 

Bloody   flux,    mentioned,    24. 

Bluebird,    mentioned,    69. 

Boards,  for  carrying  papooses,  in  disfavor, 
85. 

Bodies,  of  Indians  weaker  than  Euro 
peans,  149. 

Boils,    common,    149. 

"Bottoms",  chosen  by  Indians  because  of 
rich  soil,  44. 

Bracelets,   use   of,   15. 

Bracket   fungus,  mentioned,  30. 


North  American  Indians. 


175 


Breasts,  Indian  method  of  increasing  se 
cretions  of,  164. 

Bread,    sacrificed   to    fish,    139. 

Breathing,  "doctors"  cured  by,  25. 

Brown,   Peter  A.,   quoted,  154. 

Buffalo,  hides  of  little  value,  13;  de 
scribed,  59;  tamed,  59;  deserted  Mus- 
kingum  Valley,  58;  calves  remained 
with  dead  dam's  skin,  .39;  on  Wabash, 
110. 

Buffalo  —  fish,    mentioned,    73. 

Burial,    customs,    88-90. 

Burning   at  the    stake,   described,    106-107. 

Butter,   Indians   use   of,   14. 

Buzzard,  mentioned,  68. 


c. 


Cabinet    work,   black   walnut  used   in,   46. 

Camp,  Indians  late  in  breaking,  22;  meth 
ods  of  making,  22;  time  of  pitching, 
22;  sites,  easily  identified,  114. 

Canada,  Moose  migrate  from,  38. 

Cannibalism,  known  only  among  Iroquois, 
107,  159. 

Canoes,  use  of,  23;  methods  of  making, 
2:1;  described,  39;  burieH.  in  winter, 
157. 

Captains,  attend  council,  98;  can  declare 
war  but  not  peace,  98,  100;  choose 
and  remove  chiefs,  98;  represent  the 
people,  93;  hold  up  hands  of  Chiefs, 
100;  deference  paid  to,  101;  methods  of 
choosing%.and  training,  101-102;  must 
prove  rig'ht  to  office,  101-102;  live  in 
accord  with  Chiefs,  102;  duties  in  war, 
103-105;  send  other  captains  tobacco, 
108;  preserve  life  in  battle  by  med 
icine,  127. 

Cards,   Indians   played,   118. 

Carrying  girths,  use  and  manufacture  of, 
16,  24. 

Case,  Dr.  J.  T.,  on  modern  treatment  for 
snake  bite,  158. 

Cassiopeia,   see   Stars. 

Cat-bird,    mentioned,    69. 

Cat-fish-  mentioned,  73;  drowned  a  fisher 
man,  73. 

Cattle,  Indians  rarely  kept,  14;  belong 
to  women,  16;  easily  cared  for  in  Ohio 
in  winter,  45;  prevented  grazing  in 
daytime  by  gadflies,  75. 

Cayuga   Lake,   mentioned,   39. 

Cedar,  swamps  in  New  York,  37;  red, 
51. 


Charms,  for  bringing  presents,  83;  to 
hold  lovers  true,  see  Love  Charm. 

Chase,   charm    for   hunters   in   the,   83. 

ChaMwalanne,  Indian  name  for  species 
of  Eagle,  67;  approach  foretells  bad 
weather,  67. 

Cheating,    common,    19. 

Cherokee  River,  see  Tennessee. 

Chestnuts,   mentioned,   46-47. 

Chiefs,  attempt  to  stop  liquor  traffic,  90; 
of  Tortoise  tribe  first  take  rank,  92; 
not  absolute  rulers,  92;  must  make 
themselves  loved  and  honored,  92-93; 
expected  to  entertain,  93;  must  sup 
ply  his  own  wants,  93;  perform  com 
mon  services,  03;  must  keep  the  tribe 
in  good  repute  abroad,  93;  hold  the 
council  bag  and  keep  the  archives, 
93-94;  leadership  in  the  council,  94- 
97;  supported  by  wealthy  members  of 
the  tribe,  95;  speak  in  council  through 
a  spokesman,  95;  use  of  figurative 
language,  97;  principal  duty  to  main 
tain  peace,  98-99;  have  no  right  to 
begin  war,  98;  must  accede  to  cap 
tains  if  latter  declare  for  war,  98; 
how  chosen  and  deposed,  98;  must 
be  member  of  tribe  over  which  he 
rules,  08;  cannot  be  succeeded  by  sons, 
98;  have  oversight  of  embassies,  99; 
must  keep  his  tribe  together,  99;  must 
keep  his  town  in  order  without  use 
of  force,  99;  usually  obeyed  read 
ily,  99-100;  combat  liquor,  100;  pos 
sessions  distributed  to  all  the  tribe. 
100;  chosen  by  common  consent,  100; 
control  the  captains,  100;  chosen  by 
one  tribe  for  another,  112;  ceremony 
of  election,  112;  ignored  if  not  prop 
erly  elected,  113;  may  be  admonished 
by  chiefs  or  people,  113;  practices  on 
a  journey,  119;  method  of  disclosing 
a  secret,  120;  determine  prosperity 
of  the  tribe,  123;  in  mourning,  150; 
death  of,  150. 

Children,  not  made  to  work,  16;  seldom 
punished,  16,  81;  sleep  apart,  17; 
clothing,  17;  marital  bond  loose  if 
there  are  no,  20,  79,  85;  lack  respect 
for  age,  76;  customs  in  naming,  80; 
called  by  name,  80;  allowed  to  do  as 
they  please,  81;  women  sometimes 
punish,  81;  orphan  treated  kindly, 
81;  loved,  85;  property  of  mother, 


176 


Dai' id  Zcisbcrcjcr's  History 


98-99;  may  stay  with  father  in  case 
of  separation,  99;  Indians  fond  of 
white,  141. 

Chills  and   fever,  mentioned,   24. 

China  Clay,  see  Kaolin. 

Christian  Indians,  give  up  hunting  and 
take  up  agriculture,  14. 

Chwoame  Gischuch,  "Shad  month",  (see 
March). 

Cinnabar,  used  to  dye  shirts,  87. 

Claws,  deer,  used  for  rattles,  105. 

Clay,  four  kinds,  55. 

Cleanliness,  little  practiced,  16,  8C;  more 
common  among  Delawares  than  Iro- 
quois,  17. 

Coffins,  made  by  later  Indians,  89. 

Golden,  Cadwallader,  History  of  the  Five 
Indian  Nations,  cited,  159. 

Consciences,  missionaries,  only,  knew  the 
Indians,  20. 

Consumption,  treatment  for,  157;  not  ben 
efited  by  sweating-ovens,  159. 

Conversation,   peculiarities   of,   116. 

Copperheads,    described,  71. 

Coral,    used    in   dress,    86. 

Corn,  in  Iroquois  country,  40;  the  "wife" 
of  the  Indian,  139;  bear's  flesh  sac 
rificed  to,  '139;  sacrificed  to  deer  and 
bear,  139. 

Corn-meal,  food  and  drink  for  journey 
ing  made  of,  22. 

Corpse,  how  prepared  for  burial,  89;  dis 
entombed  by  Nantikokes  after  three 
months,  90. 

Council  bag,  kept  by  Chiefs,  03;  suc 
cession  of,  100. 

Council  house,  purpose,  93. 

Councils,  ceremony  observed,  93,  96; 
young  men  admitted  to  learn  use  of 
formal  language,  96;  smoking  at,  96; 
women  never  admitted,  96;  provisions 
for,  96;  discussions  at,  97;  speeches 
sent  in  name  of  three  tribes,  111. 

Counsellors,  duties,  93,  99;  not  always  con 
sulted,  123. 

Counting,    methods   of,    144. 

Courting,    methods   of,   78. 

Cowardice,    common   to  redmen,   19. 

Crab-apples,    mentioned,    46,    161. 

Crane,  described,  65;  will  attack  its 
enemy,  65;  unpalatable  to  Indian,  65; 
trumpeting,  65. 

Creation,   Indian  idea  of,   128. 

Credit,  Indians  glad  to  buy  on,  117. 

Crows,  did  much  damage,  68. 


Cursing,     unknown    among     Indians,     85; 

see    Obscenity. 
Cuyahoga  River,  mentioned,  43,  162. 


1). 


Dances,  daily  indulged  in,  18;  customs, 
18,  118;  houses,  18;  music,  18;  treaty, 
121;  war,  121;  Iroquois  dance  War 
Dance  in  time  of  peace,  121;  at  feasts, 
137. 

Dead,  bequests  carefully  carried  out,  88; 
sacrificed  to,  140;  meat  (hog  or  bear) 
offering  to,  140;  drink  (rum)  offer 
ing  to,  140. 

Death,  distribution  of  belongings  after, 
87-88;  feared  by  Indians,  148. 

Debts,  customs  concerning,  92;  Indians 
slow  to  pay,  117;  cancelled  at  out 
break  of  war,  117. 

Deceit,    Indians    master    of,    19. 

Declaration    of    War,    how    made,    114. 

December,  name  for  month,  146. 

Deer,  most  sought  for  game,  13;  killed 
for  hides  only,  14;  each  Indian  kills 
150  every  fall,  14;  hoe  made  of 
shoulder-blade  of,  28;  described,  57; 
colors  of  coat,  13,  57;  facts  con 
cerning  young,  57;  value  of  pelts, 
57;  White,  called  by  Indians  "King", 
64;  Indian  boy  celebrates  killing  his 
first,  75;  corn  sacrificed  to,  139. 

Deer  claws,  used  as  rattles,  105. 

Degeneration,  of  Indians,  mentioned,  130, 
131,  135. 

Delaware  River,  Shawanese  lived  at  forks 
of,  If, 9. 

De  Schweinitz,  Edmund,  Life  and  Times 
of  David  Zeisbcrger,  cited,  156,  159, 
160,  170,  172. 

Desertion,  not  uncommon,  82;  barrenness 
causes,  85. 

Devil,  Indian  idea  of,  130;  found  only 
among  white  people,  130. 

Diarrhoea,  common,  149;  remedies  for, 
150,  157. 

Diary  of  David  Zcisberger,  mentioned, 
4. 

Dice,  the  Indian  "National"  game,  118; 
long  game  between  two  Iroquois 
towns,  119. 

Diet,    Indian,    116. 

Diseases,    of    Indians,    24    seq. 

Dishes,     seldom    washed,    16,    86. 

Dislocations,  well  reduced  by  Indians, 
149. 


North  American  Indians. 


177 


Divorce,  fate  of  children  in  case  of,  98- 
99. 

Doctors,  charlatanism  of,  25  seq;  prac 
tices  of,  25,  148;  prices  charged  by, 
25;  remedies  secret,  150;  labor  cases 
attended  by  both  male  and  females, 
158. 

Dogs,  make  houses  filthy,  17;  wolfish 
nature  of  Indian,  31. 

Dog-wood,   mentioned,   51. 

Drake,  Samuel  Gardner,  The  Aboriginal 
Races  of  North  America,  cited,  154. 

Dreams,  determine  profession  to  be  fol 
lowed,  101;  influence  of,  120;  pre 
tended,  120;  effects  on  boys,  127-128. 

Dress,    Indian's,    15;    female,    86. 

Dropsy,    treatment    for,    157. 

Drums,  how  made,  18. 

Ducks,    wild,    65;    migrate,   65. 

Dug-outs,  method    of  making,   30. 

Duties,  of  men,  13,  82;  of  women,  13,  82, 
87. 

Dysentery,   mentioned,   24,   157. 


Eagle,  described,  67;  nests,  67;  brave 
fighter,  67;  killed  by  fish,  67; 
"Forked",  67. 

Ear,    cutting    helix,    12. 

Earth,  Indian  notions  concerning  the, 
147,  148. 

"Earth-bean",  47. 

Eat-all   feasts,   mentioned,   138,   173. 

Eels,  of  Pennsylvania.  38;  of  New  York, 
38;  rare  in  the  Muskingum  River, 
74. 

Election,    of    Chief,    ceremony,    112,    113. 

"Elephants",  supposed  to  have  existed  in 
America,  110. 

Elk,  hides  of  little  value,  13;  gave  name 
to  Muskingum  River,  44;  found  along 
Muskingum  as  late  as  1780,  44;  com 
pared  to  European  stag,  58;  men 
tioned,  164. 

Elm-wood,    paste   made  of,   23. 

Elm-tree,    mentioned,   51. 

Embassy,  Cherokee  to  Delawares,  150, 
151. 

Embassies,  how  chosen  and  sent,  96. 
Emetic,    administered    to    bring    luck,    84; 

whimsical   Indian  concoction   for,   158. 

cf.  "Vomit  Town". 
Epilepsy,    not    common,    149;    bloodletting 

for,    149. 

12* 


Europeans,  Indian  estimate  of  the,  121; 
disguise  secret  enmity  toward,  122; 
devil  originated  among,  130. 


F. 


Famine,   threatened  primeval   Indians,  28, 

159. 

Fauna,    of    Muskingum    Valley,    57,    seq. 
Feasts,  137;  see  Worship. 
February,  name  of  month  of,  146. 
Felon,    cured    by    blue    violet    decoction, 

158. 

Female    diseases,    treatment    of,   56. 
Fevers,  Indian  treatment  of,  55,  157;  able 

to  predict  result  of,   55. 
Fields,  abandoned  by  Indians,  44. 
Figurative    language,    cleverly   used,    97. 
Finches,    mentioned,    69. 
Finery,     Indian    women    loved,    86;    men 

disregard,  86. 
Fir-trees,    mentioned,    51. 
Fire,    worshipped,    138;    "grandfather"    of 

Indians,   138. 

Firewood,    early    method    of    making,    29. 
Fish,     Indians     cook     well,     14;     Iroquois 

lived    on,    38;    killed   an    eagle,   67;    of 

Muskingum  River,  73;  bread  sacrificed 

to,    139. 

Flint,  used  to  make  knives,  28. 
Flood",  legend  of  "The,  131-132. 
Food,    always  well  cooked,  14. 
Fool's   Gold    (Iron  pyrites),   164. 
Fort   Frontenac,    mentioned,    41,    161. 
Fort    Ligonier,    mentioned,    43. 
Fox,  season  for  hunting,  13;  three  kinds, 

60. 
French    Creek,    Venango    early    name   of, 

42;    Onenge    Indian   name  of,    42,   162. 
Friedenshiitten,    mentioned,    36. 
Friends,    do   not  desire  possession    of  de 
ceased  friends,  88. 
Friendships,    Indian    boys    form    peculiar, 

119. 

Frogs,  mentioned,  75. 
Fuel,    determined    location    of    towns,    87; 

gathered  by   women,   87. 

Funeral    observances,    89,    90;    of    Nanti- 

kokes,  90. 
Future  life,   Indian  idea  of,  129. 


G. 


Gadflies,     prevent     cattle    grazing    in    the 
daytime,   75. 


178 


David  Zcisberger's  History 


Game,  killed  by  Indian  belonged  to  wife, 
16;    larger    in    North    than    in    South, 
14. 
Games,     description     of     Indian,     118-119; 

certain  taken  from  Europeans,  US. 
Gar-pike,    mentioned,    73,    74. 
Geese,  wild,  65;  migrate,  65. 
Gekelmukpechunk       [Gekelemukpechuenk] 

mentioned,  136,  170. 
Gelelemend,    mentioned,    172. 
Genealogies,    Indians  well   versed   in,   146. 
Geological   Survey    of    Ohio,    cited,    106. 
Gifts,   made  trouble,   124. 
Girths,    see    Carrying  girths,   hemp. 
Glikkikan,    mentioned,    172. 
God,   ideas  of,   128-129;    mentioned   by   im 
postors,    133-135;    reverenced    in    feats, 
138;     dwells    beyond    sun    rising,    138; 
worshipped    in   sweating-ovens,   138. 
Gold,     whatever     glitters     Indians     called, 

54. 

Good   Health,   cited,   158. 
Gonorrhoea,   treatment   for,   158. 
Gvschgosching,     mentioned,     22,     date     of 

beginning  mission  at,  33. 
Goschgoschuenk,       Delaware        (Monsey) 

town  on  Allegheny  River,  156. 
Gossip,    Indian   women,  116,   124. 
Government,    of    each    Indian    nation,    in 
dependent,  92;  of  Indian  nations,  de 
scribed,    92   seq. 
Gravel,    treatment    of,    157. 
Grain,  bottom  land  too  rich  to  grow  win 
ter,    44;    high    ground  chosen    for,    44. 
Graves,   how   made,   88-89;    face   the   west, 
89;    visited  by   friends,   89-90;    of   chil 
dren  visited  by  mothers,  140. 
Great  Lakes,  extent,  43;  traders  on,  43. 
Greeting,      Indian      method,     115;      never 

hypocritical,   115. 

Ground-hog,    described,    64;    eaten   by   In 
dians,  64;  chews  its  cud,  64. 
Grouse,     method     of     escaping     pursuers, 

66. 

Guests,   well  treated,   120. 
Gull,    mentioned,   152. 

Guns,    rifle-barrelled,    used   by    Delawares 
and   Shawanese,    85. 

H. 

Hackihewi    Gischuch,    "planting    month", 

see    April. 
Hair,  nature  of  Indian's,  12;  turns  white, 

12;      styles      of,      12;      treatment      of 


women's,    12;    reason    for    its    straight- 
ness,    154. 

Hare,  described,  64;  white,  64;  worshipped, 
140;    strange    legend    concerning,    140. 
Haste,   journeying   Indians  seldom   in,   22. 
Hats,    some    Indians   wore,    15. 
Hatchets,    manufacture,    28;    purpose    of, 

28. 
Hawk,     mentioned,    (57;     in    fight    with    a 

l.lacksnake,    72. 

Hawthorne,   bush,  mentioned,   47. 
Headache,    rum    sacrificed    to,    140;    treat 
ment   for,   148. 

Headstones,  erected,  89;  red,  for  Cap 
tains,  89;  physicians,  adorned  with 
tortoise  shell,  89;  warriors,  bear  rec 
ord  of  exploits,  89. 

Heckewelder,  John.  An  Account  of  the 
History,  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Indian  Nations,  quoted  on  temper  of 
Indian  women,  155;  on  marital  fidelity, 
155;  on  Indian  pride,  156;  on  Indian 
courage,  156;  on  alleged  hardships  of 
Indian  women,  155;  on  Indian  division 
of  ownership,  155;  cited,  157,  158, 
159,  170,  172. 

Hell,  unknown  to  Indians,  130;  see 
Machtandonu'inck;  Cf.  134-135. 

Hemorrhage,  mentioned,  24,  158. 

Hemp,  used  to  make  carrying  girths,  16. 
25;  mentioned,  155. 

Heron,   mentioned,   68. 

Hickory   trees,    mentioned,   47. 

Hides,    skinned   by   flint   knives,   28. 

History  of  the  Fire  Indian  Nations,  see 
Golden. 

History  -  -  -  of  the  Indian  Tribes, 
The,  see  Schoolcraft. 

History  of  the  Mission  of  the  United 
Brethren,  see  Loskiel. 

Hoe,    deer    shoulder-blade    used    for,    28. 

Hog,    meat    offering   to   the    dead,    140. 

Home  life,  described,  81,  82;  division  of 
labor,  82. 

Honey-locust,    mentioned,    47. 

Hoop-ash,  barrel  hoops  made  from,  47. 

Hoopoe,    mentioned,   68. 

Horn-fish,   mentioned,  37. 

Horn-snake,  see  Copperhead. 

Horses,  belong  to  men,  16;  used  little 
by  Indians  except  for  riding,  87; 
Indians  too  lazy  to  break,  87. 

Hospitality,    Indian,    120,    121. 

Housekeeping,   customs,   16. 


North  American  Indians. 


179 


Houses,    character    of,    17;    description    of     | 
Iroquois,    17;    Indians    learn    to    build 
regular,     18;     interior,     described,     86; 
rarely    locked,   123. 

Hulbert,  A.  B.,  Washington's  Tc-nr  to  the 
Ohio,  cited,  159. 

Humming   bird,    mentioned,    69. 

Hunting,  appropriate  seasons  for,  13; 
Christian  Indians  give  up,  It;  feasts, 
to  bring  luck  in,  84;  parties,  rules 
governing,  91;  favor  to  old  men,  91; 
grounds,  Kickapoos  gave  Delawares 
and  Wyandots,  on  Wabash,  142. 

Hypocrites,    Indians   poor,    115. 

I. 

Idol,    Indians    had    one,    141. 

Indians  (in  genera!)  Stature.  12;  color, 
12;  hair,  12;  ornaments.  12;  several 
duties  of  men  and  women,  13,  82; 
raised  vegetables  by,  13;  hunting,  13; 
sugar  boiling,  13,  48;  change  customs 
upon  conversion,  14;  have  few  cattle, 
14;  fond  of  milk  and  butter,  14;  eat 
only  well-cooked  food,  14;  kill  game 
for  skins  only,  14;  rarely  shoot  wolves, 
14;  modes  and  materials  of  dress,  15; 
state  dress,  15;  shoes,  15;  hats,  15; 
women's  dress.  15;  women's  orna 
ments,  15;  jewelry,  15;  gave  women 
results  of  chase,  16;  women  supply 
the  men,  16;  division  of  ownership 
of  cattle  and  horses,  16;  lax  control 
of  children,  16;  girls  labor,  16;  use 
of  wild  hemp,  16,  25,  155;  unclean- 
liness  of  utensils,  16;  dogs  unclean, 
17;  beds  and  tables,  17;  mats,  17; 
blankets,  17;  boys  and  girls  sleep 
apart,  17;  women's  attire,  17;  chil 
dren's  clothing,  17;  huts  and  houses, 
17;  Iroquois  and  Delaware  huts  com 
pared,  17;  learn  to  build  houses  of 
whites,  18;  laziness,  18;  labor  of  old 
men  and  boys,  18;  games,  (dice  and 
ball),  18;  dance  every  night,  18; 
noisy  dancing,  18;  musical  drums,  18; 
pride,  18;  belief  in  dreams,  19;  in 
Satan's  power,  19;  masters  of  deceit, 
19;  credulous,  19;  cheating  and  steal 
ing,  19;  thieves  go  unpunished,  19; 
hide  anger,  19;  remember  revenge,  19; 
peace-makers,  19;  quarrels  settled  by 
payment  of  wampum,  19;  cowards,  19; 
treacherous,  19;  known  only  by  long 
acquaintance,  20;  grossly  immoral,  20; 


immorality  proven  by  lack  of  chil 
dren,  20;  only  aged  moral,  21;  love  of 
children,  21;  have  concubines,  21; 
families  sometimes  large,  21;  capacity 
for  work,  21;  clever  mentally,  21;  ex 
cel  in  iron  work,  etc.,  21;  superiority 
in  the  forest,  21;  never  lost,  21;  never 
balked  on  a  journey,  22;  always  find 
food,  22;  never  in  haste  on  journey, 
22,  120;  break  camp  late  in  the  day, 
22.  120;  cat  heartily  before  journey 
ing,  22,  120;  camp  at  sun  down,  22, 
120;  use  of  snow  shoes,  22;  food 
taken  on  journeys,  22,  120;  canoes 
quickly  made,  23;  elm  paste  for  re 
pairing  canoes,  23;  diseases  due  to 
exposures,  23;  sr.ffjr  from  rheumatism, 
sores,  chills,  fevers,  dysentery,  vene 
real  diseases,  24,  55;  modes  of  car 
rying  burdens,  24;  poor  nurses,  24; 
treatment  of  sick,  21;  knowledge  of 
herbs,  24;  doctors,  25;  superstitions, 
25;  treat  external  injuries,  with  suc 
cess,  25;  cure  snake  bite,  25;  be 
come  doctors  when  they  grow  old, 
25;  pay  doctors  large  fees,  25;  feign 
to  cure  with  breath,  25;  use  sweat 
ing-ovens  frequently,  26;  doctor's 
practices,  26;  methods  of  blood-letting 
and  cupping,  27;  recollections  of  early 
history,  27;  legend  of  coming  of 
whites,  27;  primitive  implements,  28; 
tobaccos,  28;  knives,  28;  hatchets,  28; 
kettles  and  pots,  29;  stories  of  primi 
tive  hunting  customs,  29;  primitive 
blankets,  29;  ancient  use  of  bow, 
29;  primitive  fire-making  and  carry 
ing,  29;  underground  dwellings,  30; 
early  dogs,  31;  early  wampum,  31; 
legend  of  Iroquois  conquest  of  Dela 
wares,  32;  acquaintance  with  and 
use  of  petroleum  oil,  52;  make  lit 
tle  use  of  salt  springs,  53;  ceremony 
when  boy  kills  his  first  deer,  75; 
ancient  respect  for  old  age,  76;  lack 
of  respect  for  age  sign  of  decay,  76; 
retaliation  for  adultery,  77;  men 
struation  customs  in  different  tribes, 
77;  formal  courtship  and  marriage 
customs,  78;  presents  to  and  from 
newly-married  couples,  78;  ancient 
customs  disappearing,  78;  husbands 
and  wives  sometimes  faithful  through 
life,  79;  parents  cannot  arrange  a 
marriage  against  will  of  the  children, 
79;  decay  and  immorality  accounted 


180 


David  Zcisbergcr's  History 


for,  79;  women  strong  physically,  80; 
child-birth  and  nursing,  80;  choice  of 
names,  80;  custom  of  praying  over  a 
child,  80;  children,  only,  called  by 
name,  80;  children  never  coerced 
or  reprimanded,  81;  children  often 
well-bred,  81;  children  sometimes 
angered  by  women,  81;  women  often 
ill-tempered,  81;  methods  of  punish 
ing  children,  81;  fear  of  revenge 
saves  children  from  corporal  pun 
ishment,  81;  stricter  than  whites 
about  marriage  of  blood-relations,  81; 
average  family,  81;  twins  rare,  81; 
infants'  food,  81;  orphans,  81;  women 
manage  the  home,  81;  family  distri 
bution  of  labor,  82;  husbands  desert 
wives  after  misunderstandings,  82; 
marriage  customs,  82;  commit  sui 
cide  over  disappointments  in  love,  83; 
use  of  love  charms,  83;  use  charms 
to  get  presents,  83;  same  for  the  chase, 
83;  ascribe  ill-fortune  in  hunting  to 
presence  of  missionaries,  84;  believe 
dreams  affect  hunting,  84;  skillful  in 
use  and  repair  of  guns,  85;  take  pride 
in  good  work,  85;  never  curse,  85; 
use  obscene  expressions  when  en 
raged,  85;  mothers  love  children,  85; 
carrying  children  on  a  board  causes 
sickness  and  death,  85;  custom  ob 
solete,  85;  men  and  women  seldom 
sterile,  85;  consider  barrenness  good 
cause  for  desertion,  8-3;  houses  fairly 
clean,  86;  dogs  scatter  fleas,  86;  uten 
sils  rarely  clean,  86;  use  of  spoons, 
bowls,  etc.,  86;  women  love  finery,  86; 
men  dress  meanly,  86;  women's  dress, 
86;  clothing  seldom  washed,  87;  paint 
faces  and  bodies,  87;  women  dress 
shabbily  when  old,  87;  method  of 
locating  towns,  87;  move  towns  be 
cause  of  lack  of  fuel,  87;  use  horses 
seldom  except  to  ride,  87;  know  noth 
ing  of  inheritances,  87;  widows  re 
ceive  none  of  husband's  goods,  87; 
dislike  to  be  reminded  of  departed 
friends  by  possessing  their  goods,  88; 
widows  and  widowers  do  not  marry 
for  one  year,  88;  treatment  of  wid 
ows,  88;  customs  concerning  funerals 
and  burial-places,  88;  graves  dug  by 
old  women,  89;  customs  concerning 
grave-markers,  89;  men  ashamed  to 
weep  at  funerals,  89;  political  rela 
tions,  90;  free  agents,  90;  live  where 


they  please,  90;  frequently  live  apart 
from  towns,  90;  much  engaged  in 
liquor  traffic,  90;  women  sell  rum, 
90;  inability  to  control  liquor  trade, 
90;  treatment  of  murderers,  90;  fre 
quently  murder  when  intoxicated,  91; 
pay  relatives  of  victims,  91 ;  easily 
escape  punishment  for  murder  of  rela 
tives,  91 ;  thieves  escape  punishment 
on  payment  being  made,  91;  gov 
erned  in  hunting  by  recognized  rules, 
91;  treat  old  men  graciously  when 
hunting,  91;  debtors  must  pay  or 
friends  must  pay,  92;  purchasers  when 
dissatisfied  may  return  the  goods, 
92;  tribes  involved  in  war  by  un 
ruly  members,  92;  tribal  organization, 
92;  chieftain's  duties,  92;  treatment 
of  ambassadors  by  chiefs,  93;  coun 
cil  and  council-house,  93;  chiefs  keep 
the  archives  and  belts,  93;  council 
procedure,  93;  wampum  described,  94; 
language  in  council,  96;  messages  and 
carriers,  !>ft;  youths  train  to  be  mes 
sengers,  96;  women  never  admitted 
to  council,  96;  methods  of  making 
addresses,  97;  habit  of  having  some 
thing  in  the  hand  when  delivering 
a  message,  97;  method  of  refusing  by 
making  figurative  replies,  f)7;  use  of 
peace-pipe,  98;  chiefs  cannot  declare 
war,  98;  custom  of  choosing  chiefs, 
98;  inherit  tribal  rights  from  mother 
only,  98;  division  into  tribes  a  guard 
against  incest,  98;  children  belong  to 
the  mother,  98;  rarely  punish  children 
through  fear  of  later  separation  of 
man  and  wife,  99;  regard  wives  as 
strangers,  99;  chiefs  not  succeeded 
son,  99;  chiefs  expected  to  keep  clans 
united,  99;  method  of  choosing  chiefs, 
100;  captain's  office  and  influence,  100; 
methods  of  concluding  peace,  100; 
boys  trained  to  become  captains,  101; 
warriors,  102;  war-parties,  size  and 
and  deportment,  103;  methods  of  mak 
ing  war,  103;  barbarities  when  vic 
torious,  104;  treatment  of  prisoners, 
105;  custom  of  burning  at  the  stake, 
106;  not  cannibals,  107;  tribes  take 
the  name  of  p'ace  where  they  dwell, 
111;  method  of  election  of  chiefs, 
112;  ignore  chiefs  not  properly  elected, 
113;  reprimand  chiefs,  113;  methods 
of  writing  on  trees,  114;  method  of 
declaring  war,  114;  modes  of  meeting, 


North  American  Indians. 


181 


115;  ignore  empty  compliments,  115; 
make  no  sign  of  greeting  if  enmity 
exists,  115;  tobacco  indispensable,  115; 
mix  sumac  with  tobacco,  116;  intro 
duce  fanciful  thoughts  in  conversa 
tion  without  interruption,  116;  laugh 
ing  common,  116;  attentive  listeners, 
116;  never  interrupt,  116;  never  shame 
one  another,  116;  love  to  be  treated 
as  worthy,  116;  pleased  to  know  they 
are  liked,  116;  treatment  of  guests, 
116;  principal  diet.  116;  like  to  talk 
of  important  affairs,  116;  women  usu 
ally  smoke,  116;  women  carry  stories 
from  house  to  house,  116;  men  scout 
women's  tales  until  confirmed,  11(5; 
articles  of  trade,  117;  glad  to  cheat 
and  steal,  117;  fond  of  buying  on 
credit,  117;  ignore  creditors  when  pos 
sible,  117;  offended  if  dunned,  117; 
cancel  all  debts  at  outbreak  of  war, 
117;  traffic  among  themselves,  117; 
women  sell  rum,  117;  appoint  sacri 
fices  in  rum,  117;  exchange  everything 
but  breech  clout  for  rum,  118;  youth 
dance  every  night,  118;  mode  of 
dancing,  118;  games,  118;  towns  con 
test  in  gaming,  119;  use  of  bows,  110; 
boys  form  close  friendships,  119;  cus 
toms  on  journeys,  119;  never  hurry 
on  journeys,  120;  eat  before  jour 
neying,  120;  dislike  having  evil  acts 
disclosed,  120;  dislike  admonition,  120; 
forward  messages  received  from 
dream,  120;  treat  guests  royally,  120; 
treaty  dance,  121;  war  dance,  121; 
attitude  towards  and  opinion  of 
Europeans,  121;  love  the  French,  122; 
call  whites  Big  Knives,  122;  rarely 
guilty  of  violence  or  theft,  123;  do 
not  lock  houses,  123;  care  of  aged, 
123:  assist  poor  and  needy,  124;  pos 
sess  negroes  who  intermarry,  124; 
never  forget  being  cheated,  124; 
strange  notions  of  giving  and  receiv 
ing,  124;  women  lie  and  gossip,  124; 
fear  a  bad  name,  125;  witchcraft  and 
sorcery,  125;  use  of  the  witchball,  126; 
religious  beliefs,  128;  fear  of  death, 
129;  idea  of  God,  129;  idea  of  devil 
not  native,  130;  idea  of  soul,  131; 
believe  in  transmigration,  131;  tra 
ditions  of  flood,  131;  idea  of  their 
origin,  132:  belief  in  spirits,  132; 
reception  of  native  preachers,  133; 
influenced  against  Europeans  by  na 


tive  preachers,  133;  preacher's  idea 
of  Heaven,  134;  morals  weakened  by 
preachers,  135;  modes  of  worship  and 
sacrifice,  136;  observe  eat-all  feasts, 
138;  dance  decently  at  feasts,  137; 
celebrate  various  kinds  of  public 
feasts,  137;  pay  off  old  scores  at 
orgies,  139;  celebrate  private  feasts, 
139;  kept  in  slavery  by  the  devil 
through  dreams,  140;  disdain  native 
sacrifices  after  conversion,  140;  make 
offerings  to  spirit  of  the  dead,  140; 
imagine  trivial  pains  to  be  caused  by 
spirits,  140;  travel  long  distances  to 
graves  of  children  to  sacrifice,  140; 
reverence  the  hare,  140;  legend  about 
the  hare,  140;  idols,  141;  ornaments, 
141;  fond  of  white  children,  141;  re 
gard  twins  fortunate,  141;  languages, 
141-142;  study  oratory,  142;  lack  re 
ligious  expressions,  143;  adepts  at  dis 
sembling,  143;  language  easy  to  pro 
nounce,  143;  have  few  monosyllables, 
144;  have  ten  words  meaning  bear, 
144;  count  up  to  hundreds  of  thou 
sands,  144;  unable  to  grasp  large  num 
bers,  144;  women  count  on  fingers 
because  of  poor  memory,  144;  make 
little  progress  in  arithmetic,  144;  usu 
ally  count  in  Dutch  money,  144;  know 
little  of  writing,  145;  esteem  a  sealed 
letter  highly,  145;  writing  may  last 
fifty  years,  145;  ashamed  of  their 
Indian  names,  145;  method  of  reck 
oning  time,  145;  do  not  know  their 
age,  145;  names  for  months,  145; 
differ  as  to  beginning  of  the  year, 
145;  well  versed  in  genealogies,  146; 
respect  the  rich,  146;  remember  feats 
of  ancestors  in  wars  with  Cherokees 
and  Iroquois,  146;  never  formally  di 
vide  territory,  147;  bound  territory  by 
rivers,  portages  and  mountains,  147; 
have  no  conception  of  geography,  147; 
ideas  of  the  sun,  147;  ideas  of  thun 
der,  148;  name  certain  stars,  148;  no 
tions  of  astronomy,  148;  greatly  fear 
death,  148;  impositions  of  doctors, 
148;  use  of  white  walnut  bark,  148; 
seldom  go  mad,  149;  suffer  from  boils, 
149;  proficient  in  setting  broken  bones, 
149;  method  of  setting  broken  leg, 
149;  treatment  of  toothache,  149; 
laugh  at  one  who  cries  out  in  an 
operation,  149;  little  affected  by  mis 
fortune,  149;  suffer  from  diarrhoea, 


David  Zeisberger's  History 


149;   often   suffer  from  overdoses,  150;     i 

widows     observe     mourning     customs, 

150;  high  regard  of  peace-pipe,  151. 
Indians   (by  tribes). 

Catawba,  mentioned,  108. 

Cayugas,  mentioned,  40,  41;  see  Iro 
quois. 

Cherokees,  early  relations  with  Dela 
wares,  32  seq.;  wars  with  Six  Na 
tions  and  Wyandots,  33;  trade 
with  Delawares,  54;  guilty  of  tor 
ture,  107;  dialect,  142,  146. 

Chippewa,  dialect,  142;  classed  with 
dark-skinned  Indians,  154. 

Creeks,  [Moskos]  war  with  Shawanese, 
108,  147. 

Delamattenos,    see    Wyandots. 

Dclawar*  a,  Zeisberger  first  met,  3,  4;  \ 
legends  of  "conquest"  by  Iroquois,  J 
S,  34  seq. ;  146-147;  women  braid 
hair,  12;  more  cleanly  than  Iro 
quois,  17;  one  family  in  a  house, 
17;  history,  27  seq.;  tribal  divi 
sions,  27;  early  relations  with 
Cherokees,  32  seq.;  called  "Woa- 
panachky",  36;  claim  to  Ohio  land 
recognized  by  Wyandots,  33; 
language  more  difficult  than  Iro 
quois,  41;  date  of  leaving  Alle 
gheny  River,  43;  buy  pipes  from 
Cherokees,  54;  private  customs  of 
women,  77;  use  rifles,  85;  at 
tempted  formal  village,  87;  leagued 
with  many  nations,  108;  attitude 
in  Revolutionary  War,  109;  made 
powerful  by  Chief  Netawatwes, 
111;  without  real  ruler,  113;  name 
(Lenni  Lenape)  114;  sold  land 
treacherously  to  whites,  122;  en 
deavored  to  extirpate  "witch-ball", 
126;  relation  of  language  to  var 
ious  nations,  142;  dialects,  143; 
drove  of  Iroquois,  146. 


"Flatheads"  [Twightwees]  see  Mi- 
amis. 

Hurons,   see  Wyandots. 

Iroquois  [Six  Nations,  Five  Nations] 
visited  by  Post  and  Zeisberger,  2, 
3;  archives  kept  by  Zeisberger,  3; 
women  braid  hair,  12;  less  cleanly 
than  Delawares,  17;  houses,  17; 
treacherous,  20;  at  war  with  Cher 
okees.  33;  legend  of  "conquest" 
of  Delawares,  33  seq.;  country 


(New  York)  described,  36,  37,  39, 
40,  58;  orchards,  39;  various  tribes 
(Oneidas,  Senecas,  Onondagas, 
Mohawks,  Cayugas,  Tuscarawas) 
40;  language,  Wyandot  resembled, 
40;  Wyandots  allied  to,  40;  enter 
prise  in  war,  40;  language  easier 
to  learn  than  Delaware,  41  ;  de 
generation,  41  ;  little  engaged  in 
trade,  41;  private  customs  of 
women,  77;  marriage  planned  by 
parents,  79;  guilty  of  torture,  107; 
towns  had  dice  tournament,  119; 
danced  war  dance  in  time  of 
peace,  121;  dialect,  142;  oratory 
boastful,  142;  name  for  Cassiopeia, 
148:  tribe  of  Senecas  known  as 
Mingoes  in  West,  154. 

Kaskaskias  [Kaskaski],  kiag;)?.l  with 
Delawares,  108;  dialect,  142. 

Kickapoos  [Kikapus]  leagued  with 
Delawares,  108;  gave  Delawares 
hunting  grounds  on  Wabash 
River,  142;  dialect,  142;  gave  Wy 
andots  hunting  grounds,  147. 

Mahikanders,    see    Mohicans. 

Menomonies,     mentioned,     154. 

Miamis  [Twichtwees]  private  customs 
of  women,  77;  leagued  with  Del 
awares,  108;  dialect,  142. 

Mohawks,   40;    see   Iroquois. 

Mohicans  [Mahikanders]  war  with 
Iroquois,  36;  leagued  with  De'a- 
wares,  l';8;  dialect,  141. 

Money,  Indian  terms  for  European, 
144. 

Monsey,  mentioned,  27;  dialect,  141- 
142;  lived  on  Beaver  River,  155; 
see  Delawares. 

Moskos,   see   Creeks. 

Nantikokes,  strange  burial  custom,  90; 
originated  famous  poison,  126; 
dialect,  141. 

Oneidas,    40;    see    Iroquois. 

Onondagas,  40,  155;    see  Iroquois. 

Ottawas,  mentioned,  19;  dialect,  142; 
small  stature,  154. 

Pottowatamies,  leagued  with  Dela 
wares,  108. 

Senecas,    40;    see    Iroquois. 

Shawanese,  [Shawno]  women  braid 
hair,  12;  private  custom  of  women, 
77;  used  rifle-barrelled  guns,  85; 
guilty  of  torture,  107;  war  with 
Creeks,  108;  history,  108;  at  odds 


North  American  Indians. 


183 


with    Delawares,    109;    use    of   war 
beson,  127;   dialect,  142. 

Sioux    [Su]   mentioned,   115. 

Six  Nations,  see  Iroquois. 

Tukashas  [Tuckachachas]  leagued 
with  Delawares,  1081;  dialect, 
142. 

Tuscarawas,    mentioned,    40,    41. 

Twightwees,  "Flatheads",  see  Miamis. 

Unalochtgos,  see  (Wunalachtico)  Del 
aware. 

Unami,  mentioned,  27;  dialect,  141, 
144;  lived  on  Tuscarawas  River, 
159;  see  Delawares. 

Wawiachtenos,  leagued  with  Dela 
wares,  108;  dialect,  142. 

Wunalachtico,  [Unalochtgos]  a  tribe 
of  Delaware  Nation,  27;  see  Del 
aware. 

Wyandots,  [Wiondatoo,  Wiandots,  Del- 
amattenos]  women  braid  hair,  12; 
treacherous,  19;  war  with  Cher- 
okees,  33;  recognized  Delawares' 
claim  to  Ohio  land,  33;  allied  with 
Iroquois,  40;  language  like  Iro 
quois,  40;  came  to  Muskingum 
for  vermillion,  5o;  guilty  of  tor 
ture,  107;  called  Delamattenos  by 
Delawares,  110  (see  Thomas) ;  dia 
lect,  142;  given  hunting  grounds 
by  Kickapoos,  147. 

Ingratitude,   an  Indian  characteristic,   124. 
Inheritances,     unknown     among     Indians, 

87;    see    Death. 
Immorality,   wide-spread,   20. 
Injuries,    no    method    of    recovering    dam 
ages    for,    92;    friends    asked    to    make 

good,    92. 

Insane,  Indians,  seldom,  149. 
Iron  pyrites,  see  Fool's  Gold. 
Iron,  Indians  clever  in  working,  21. 


J- 


Jack's    mountain,    mentioned,    162. 

January,   name    for   month,   146. 

Johnson,   Life   and    Times   of,    see    Stone. 

Johnson,  Sir  William,  mentioned,  36,  106. 

Journal  of  a   Tour,   see    Baily. 

Journey,  provisions  taken  for,  22;  routine 

while    on,    120;    leaders   on,    119. 
July,    name    of   month    of,    145. 
June,    name    for    montli    of,    146. 


Kaolin,    or    China    Clay,    mentioned,    164. 
Kekalemchpehoong,    Delaware    capital    at 

Newcomerstown,    O.,    156. 
Kentucky,   settlements  in,   43. 
Kentucky    River,    mentioned,    162. 
Keokuk,    height    of,    154. 
Kettles,  made   of  clay  and  sea  shells,  29. 
Kindness,    an    Indian    characteristic,    123, 

124. 
Kittaning    [Kittannuenk]    Pa.,    Shawanese 

at,    109. 

Knives,  made  of  flint,  28. 
Knowledge,    increase    of    among    Indians, 

brought   increased   wickedness,   131. 


Land,  Delawares  sell  treacherously,  122; 
boundaries  and  divisions,  147. 

Language,  Indian,  described,  141-144;  dif 
ference  of  dialects  due  to  separation, 
141;  Unami,  141;  Wunalachtico,  141; 
Monseys,  141;  Mahikanders,  141;  Nan- 
tikoks,  141;  Shawanese,  142;  Miamis, 
142;  Wawiachtanos,  142;  Kickapoos, 
142;  Tuckachschas,  142;  Creeks,  142; 
Kaskaskias,  142;  Ottawas,  142;  Chippe- 
was,  142;  Cherokees,  142;  Iroquois, 
142;  Wyandots,  142;  Delawares,  141- 
142;  two  principal  (Iroquois  and  Dela 
ware),  142;  pronunciation  easy,  143; 
richness  of,  144. 

Laughter,  common  among  Indians,  116; 
at  pain,  149. 

Laurel  (wild  box),  mentioned,  153; 
swamps  of,  bears  haunt,  153. 

Laurel    Hill,   mentioned,   42. 

Lawless,  persons  driven  away  by  friends, 
92;  have  involved  most  tribes  in  war, 
92. 

Laziness,  common,   ]8. 

Legend,  of  Delawares  being  made 
"women",  34  sc<].;  159. 

Lenni-Lenape,    see    Delawares. 

Leggings,   described,   86. 

Ligonier,    Pa.,    mentioned,    162. 

Linden,    mentioned,    47. 

Liquor,  women  engage  in  trade  of,  90; 
chiefs  attempt  to  stop  trade  in,  90; 
causes  murder,  90;  see  Rum. 

Little   Turtle,   mentioned,   171. 

Liver    complaint,    treatment    of,    157. 

Lizards,  mentioned,  72. 

Logan,    height    of,    154. 


184 


David  Zeisberger's  History 


Loon,  described,  68;  skin  used  to  make 
tobacco  pouches,  68. 

Loskiel,  Rev.  Henry,  History  of  the  Mis 
sion  of  the  United  Brethren,  quoted, 
155,  159;  version  of  Iroquois  "con 
quest"  of  Delawares,  159. 

Love  Charm,  sold  by  aged,  to  hold  lovers 
faithful,  as. 

Lowancn,    the    North    Star,   148. 

Lynx,  described,  64. 

Me. 

McClure.  Rev.  David,  Diary,  quoted, 
156;  on  sweating-ovens,  159;  on  In 
dian  dancing  houses,  156;  on  Indian 
marital  fidelity  156,  171. 


M. 


Machtando,  the  "Evil  One,"  130. 

Machtandonivinck,    "with   the    devil,"   130. 

Machtuzin.  "to  perspire",  name  of  fire, 
138. 

Manittos,  Indian  idea  of,  132-133;  each 
Indian  has  his,  132;  used  in  wor 
ship  of  fire,  138;  determined  by 
dreams,  139;  worshipped,  139. 

Mantewits,  mentioned,   101. 

Maple,    mentioned,    47. 

Maple  sugar,  making  described,  48-51 ; 
profit  from,  50;  in  the  fall,  48. 

"Marble",  white  and  red,  (sandstone), 
54. 

March  (month)  most  Indians  begin  year 
with,  145. 

Marital  vows  increasingly  ignored,  78-79; 
reasons  therefor,  79. 

Marriage,  usual  age  of,  20,  82;  Iroquois 
customs,  79;  not  compulsory,  79; 
slightest  provocation  disrupts,  82;  ar 
ranged  by  parents,  170. 

Marten,   furs  greatly  valued,  63. 

Materia   Medica,   of   Indians,   25,   55    57. 

Match-making,    formal    custom    of,    78. 

Mats,  of  rushes,  Indian  women  color,  17; 
use  of,  17. 

Mattapassigan,  famous  poison  of  the 
Nantikoks,  126. 

May,    name    for   month   of,    145. 

May    Apples,    mentioned,    47. 

Meat,   Indians  cooked  well,  14. 

Meclimenawvngikilla,  Indian  name  of 
Monongahela  River,  43. 

Medicine,  roots,  herbs  and  barks  used  as, 
25;  large  doses  common,  25,  55. 


Menhangik,  "travelling  companions",  Iro 
quois  name  for  Cassiopeia,  148. 

Menstrual,  customs  among  women  of 
various  tribes,  77-78. 

Mental  power,  of  Indians,  21. 

Midwives,   mentioned,  80. 

Milk,    Indians'    use    of,   14. 

Milky  Way,  the  road  to  the  Spirit  Land, 
148. 

Minerals,    Muskingum    Valley,   53,   54. 

Mitchner,  C.  H.,  Historic  Events  in  the 
Muskingum  and  Tuscarawas  Valleys, 
cited,  172. 

Missionaries,  only  really  knew  the  In 
dian,  20;  blamed  for  bad  luck  in 
hunting,  84;  improvised  spiritual  ex 
pressions,  131,  143;  hated  by  native 
preachers,  135;  threatened  by  sorcer 
ers,  172. 

Mocking  bird,    mentioned,  69. 

Monongahela  River,  explanation  of  name, 
43. 

Months,  names,  see  respective  names. 

Moose,  in  Iroquois  land,  38;  migrate  from 
Canada,  38;  described,  63. 

Moravian,  Archives,  Zeisberger's  Mss.  in, 
6. 

Mortimer,  Rev.  Benjamin,  on  Zeisberger, 
5. 

Mosquitos,  mentioned,  75;  made  camping 
in  forests  intolerable,  75. 

Mosquito-hawk,    mentioned,   152. 

Mounds,  of  early  Indians,  30. 

Moundbuilding,  Indians,  159;  remains,  at 
Lichtenau,  159;  covered  charnel 
houses,  159. 

Mourning,    for  chief,   ceremonial,   150-151. 

Murder,  caused  by  liquor,  90;  committed 
by  person  intoxicated  not  punished, 
90;  persons  intoxicated  in  order  to 
commit,  90-91;  atoned  for  by  fine, 
91. 

Muscular  development,  among  Indians, 
Schoolcraft  on,  154. 

Muskingum  River,  reached  by  Delaware 
about  1773-4,  43;  name  and  meaning 
of,  44;  described,  44;  navigation,  44; 
frozen,  45;  fish  of  73. 

Muskingum  Valley,  berries,  45;  nuts,  46; 
vines,  51;  deserted  by  buffalo,  59; 
snakes  69. 

Muskrat,  described,  6-3;  burrowings  dam 
age  dams,  64. 


North  American  Indians. 


185 


N. 


Names,  Indians  ashamed  of,  80,  145; 
prefer  those  given  by  whites,  145. 

Nations,  divided  into  three  tribes,  92; 
named  from  the  places  in  which  they 
live,  111. 

Negroes,  owned  by  Indians,  124;  made 
free,  124;  intermarry,  124. 

Netawatwes,  Chief  of  Delawares,  men 
tioned,  96,  111,  113,-  171;  ceremony 
at  death  150. 

Neville's  Island,  scene  of  traditional  bat 
tle  between  Delawares  and  Cherokees, 
159;  located,  171. 

New  York,  lakes  of,  described,  161. 

Niagara  Falls,  mentioned,  38;  Indians  lived 
on  fish  killed  at,  39;  Iroquois  killed 
going  over,  39;  Iroquois  saved  on 
Goat  Island,  39. 

Nine-pins,   game   of,   118. 

Nitgochk,  "My  companion  in  play", 
familiar  title  among  Delawares,  143. 

November,    name    for    month    of,    146. 

Nursing,  Indians  poor  at,  25;  of  wounded, 
remarkable,  25. 

Nuts,  of  Ohio,  46;   oil  used,  46. 


O. 


Oak,    trees   found   in    Muskingum    Valley, 

47. 

Obscenity,    Indian    form   of   swearing,    85. 
Obstetrics,    Indian    treatment,    158. 
October,   name  for  month  of,  146. 
Oneida  Lake,   mentioned,  39. 
Onenge,    Indian    name    of    French    Creek, 

42. 

Ohio,  climate  described,  44;  little  snow 
falls  in,  44;  varying  climate  in  north 
ern  and  southern,  44;  winters  have 
many  cloudy  days,  45. 

Ohio  Country,  described.  42;  weather  in, 
42. 

"Ohio   Path",  mentioned,   171. 

Ohio  River,  named  by  Iroquois,  33;  nav 
igation  of,  43;  east  side  early  settled, 
43;  floods,  110;  flood  drive  animals  to 
high  ground,  110. 

Ohio  State  Achaeological  and  Historical 
Society  Publications  cited,  159. 

Oil,  secured  from  nuts,  46;  three  kinds  of 
wells  described,  52-58;  methods  of 
securing,  52;  used  to  cure  tooth-ache, 
53;  swellings,  rheumatism,  strains, 


etc.,   53;    taken   internally,   53;    sold  to 

whites,   163. 
Old    age,    lack    of    respect    for,    sign    of 

deterioration,     76;    preceded    dissolute 

living,    79. 
Opossum,  described,  62;  lived  in  carcasses, 

62;   rarely   eaten  by  Indians,  62. 
Orators,    training,    95-96,    143. 
Oratory,     Indian,    142-144;    very    boastful, 

142;     required    much    knowledge,    142; 

often    veiled,    143;    without    hesitation, 

143;    men    constantly   trained    in,    143; 

see  language. 

Orchards,   Indian,    in  New  York,   39. 
Origin,   Indian  no  tradition  of  their,  132. 
Oriole,   mentioned,  69. 
Ornaments,    described,    141. 
Orphans,    treated    kindly,    81. 
Otter,    described,    61;    skins    used    for   to 
bacco   pouches,   115. 
Overdosing,    common,    150. 
Owls,  mentioned,  68;  tobacco  sacrificed  to, 

139. 

P. 

Packoango.    Tortoise    tribe,     92;     first    in 

rank,   92. 
Painting,      common      among      men      and 

women,    87;    of   loose    women,    170. 
Panther,  described,  59;  power  of  leaping, 

60;    never   caused   injury   unprovoked, 

60;     method    of    awing,    60;     in    bear 

fight,    60. 
Parkman,    Conspiracy    of    Pontiac.    cited, 

160. 
Papooses,   change   in   method  of  carrying, 

85;  see  Babes. 

Paralysis,    treatment    for,  158. 
Parrots,     found     along    the     Muskingum, 

68.  common  to  the  southward,  68. 
Parsnips,    wild,    47. 
Partridges,  live  near  settlements,  66. 
Paste,   made    from   elm-wood   bark,    23. 
Paw-paw,   mentioned,   46. 
Peace-pipe,    described,    151-152;    see    Pipe. 
Pennsylvania,    central    and    western    por 
tions,   described,  36  scq.;  swamps,   37; 

fish,    37. 

Personal  liberty,  of  Indians  complete,  90. 
Petticoat,  see  stroud,  86. 
Pheasants  palatable  to  Indians,  C6;   killed 

by  birds  of  prey,   66;    lay  many  eggs, 

66. 

Phlegmon,   treatment   for,   158. 
Pigeon,  described,  66,   in  great  flocks,   66. 
Pigeon-hawk,   mentioned,   67. 


186 


David  Zcisberycr's  History 


Pike,    mentioned,    37,    73. 

Pipes,  description  of  stones  and  clays 
which  made  good,  54;  red  "marble" 
made  best,  54;  Delaware  and  Cher 
okee  trade  in,  54;  of  peace,  described, 
98;  and  pouch,  indispensable,  115.  . 

Pitch-pine,  mentioned,  51. 

Pitcher,  Dr.  Zina,  on  Indian  diseases  and 
materia  medica,  157-158. 

Pittsburg,    position,    42-43. 

Plains,    western,    described,   115. 

"Planting   month",    see  April. 

Planting,   begins  in  May,  13. 

Pleurisy,   treatment   for,   157. 

Plover,   mentioned,    152. 

Plums,   mentioned,  46. 

Poison  Ivy,  mentioned,  56;  some  Indians 
easily  affected  by,  56. 

Poisons,  knowledge  of,  56. 

Pole-cat,  described,  62;  relished  by  In 
dians,  62. 

Polygamy,  rare  among  Indians,  81. 

Pontiac's    Rebellion,    mentioned,    156. 

Poor,    treated    kindly,    123-124. 

Poplar,   mentioned,   47. 

Pots,   made   of  clay  and    sea-shells,  29. 

Potato,  wild,  47. 

Porcupine,  described,  63;  quills  colored 
for  ornamentation,  63. 

Pouches,  for  tobacco,  indispensable,  115; 
fancy,  116. 

"Praying  over  the   child",  custom   of,  80. 

Preachers,  influence  of  wicked  native, 
133;  impostures  of,  133-134;  influence 
against  Europeans,  133;  introduced 
polygamy,  135;  claimed  equality  with 
God,  135;  hated  missionaries,  135. 

Produce,  raised  by  women  belongs  to 
husband,  16. 

Profession,   indicated  by  dreams,  101. 

Pride,  a  peculiar  savage  characteristic, 
18;  enhanced  by  dreams,  18;  humbled 
before  conversion,  19. 

Priests,  old  men  acted  as,  130;  formerly 
restrained  wickedness,  130. 

Primeval  Indian,  described,  28,  seq,;  his 
arts  and  customs,  28;  utensils,  29; 
hunting  ability,  29;  use  of  bow,  29; 
method  of  fire  making,  29;  under 
ground  dwellings,  30. 

Prisoners,  killed  by  Indians,  19;  treat 
ment  of,  104-107. 

Private  life,  of  Indians,  dissolute,  125; 
facts  known  only  by  missionaries, 
125. 


Prostitutes,   method  of  painting,  170. 
Ptucksit,   Wolfe    tribe,    92. 
Putting    shot,    contests,    118. 


Q. 


Quarrels,   settled   by   wampum,    19. 


R. 


Raccoon,  season  for  hunting,  13;  de 
scribed,  60;  skin  used  for  hats,  61; 
flesh  tasty,  61. 

Rain  prophets,    trickery,   129. 

Rattlesnake,  described,  70;  bite  easily 
healed  by  Indians,  70;  in  Susque- 
hannah  Valley,  70-71;  said  to  poison 
itself,  72;  power  to  charm,  72;  men 
tioned,  153. 

Red  bird,  mentioned,  69. 

Red  Jacket,  height  of,  154. 

Religion,   Indian,  described,  128,   132. 

Revenge,    an  Indian  characteristic,    19. 

Revolutionary  War,  lawless  Indians  in 
volved  peaceful  nation  in,  92;  un 
manageable  Indians  involved  the  Dela- 
wares  in,  92. 

Rheumatism,  treatment  for,  24,  55;  com 
mon  to  women,  24. 

Rich,    Indians   much   respected,   146;    give 

Chiefs   wampum,   146. 

I    Rifle-barreled  guns,  favored  by  Delawares 
and  Shawanese,  85. 

Road-belt,    described,    95. 
'    Rock   Fish,    mentioned,    37. 

Roofs,  various  types,  18. 

Rum,  sold  by  women,  117;  "Sacrifice"  of, 
117;  principle  of  article  of  trade 
among  Indians,  117;  exchange  every 
thing  for,  118;  led  to  violence,  139; 
offered  as  drink  offering  to  the  dead, 
140;  sacrificed  to  toothache  and  head 
ache,  14. 

S. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  navigation,  41. 

Salmon,  best  fish  in  Iroquois  land,  38. 

Salt,    charm    against    witchcraft,    126. 

Salt  licks,  mentioned,  53. 

Salt  Rheum,  treatment  for,   158. 

Salt   Springs,  in  Ohio  Basin,  53. 

Sassafras,   mentioned,   47. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry,  History  .  .  .  of 
the  Indian  tribes,  cited,  154,  155,  157. 

Scioto,  [Sioto]  Shawanese  on,  109;  men 
tioned,  162. 


North  American  Indians. 


187 


Scull's  Map,  mentioned,  171. 

Seals,   killed  on   Susquehannah   River,  37. 

Seduction,    retaliation    for,   77. 

Self-control,  Indians  possess  much,  124. 

Seneca   Lake,   mentioned,  40. 

Sentiment,  among  animals,  165. 

September,   name   for   month   of,   146. 

Shad,  mentioned,  37;  "month",  see  March. 

Sheldrake,    described,    65;    palatable,    65. 

Shirts,  worn  by  Indian  women,  86;  dyed 
with  cinnabar,  87. 

Shoes,  mentioned,  86. 

Shooting,    practiced   by    Indian   boys,    119. 

Sick,    little    cared    for,    25;      diet    of,    25, 

Sideling   Hill,   mentioned,  42. 

Slaves,  Indians  owned  negro,  124;  made 
free,  124. 

Small-pox,  ravages,  149;  sweating-ovens 
did  not  cure,  159. 

Snakes,   in   Muskingum  Valley,   69. 

Snake  poison,  Indian  varying  treatment 
for  r'-'fferent,  158. 

Snails,   described,    74-75. 

Snipe,  mentioned,  152. 

Snow-shoes,  use  of,  22;   how  made,  22. 

Sorcerers,  and  the  Black  Art  described, 
125-129;  mental  power,  172. 

Sores,  festering,  common,  24. 

Soul,  Indian  idea  of,  131;  transmigration 
of,  311. 

Spirit,    voracious,    worshipped,    138. 

Spoon-bill  cat-fish,   mentioned,   74. 

Spruce,  mentioned,  51. 

Squalle  Gischuch,  "month  of  frogs",  (Feb 
ruary),  146. 

Squirrels,  various  species,  64;  flying,  men 
tioned,  152. 

Stag,    American    deer    like    European,    58. 

Stars,    Indians  named   certain,   148. 

Starlings,   mentioned,   69. 

Stealing,   see   Theft. 

Stone,  Wm.  L.,  Life  of  Sir  William 
Johnson,  cited,  160. 

Stone    birch,    mentioned,    52. 

Stone    falcon,    mentioned,    67. 

"Stone  Tree",  Indian  name  for  Sugar 
Maple,  48. 

Stroud,    described,   86. 

Sturgeon,   mentioned,   73. 

Sucker,    mentioned,    73. 

Sugar-making,  see  Maple  Sugar. 

Sugar   Maple,   Indian  name  of,   48. 

Suicide,    as   result   of   infidelity,   83. 

Sullivan's   Expedition,  mentioned,   40,   161. 

Sumac,  for  smoking,  116. 

Summer  hunting,   character  of,  13. 


Sim.   Indian   idea   of,   14 1. 

Superstition,  promoted  by  elders,  83. 

Susquehannah  Valley,  described,  36  seq.; 
River,  seals  killed  in,  27;  story  of 
rattlesnakes  in,  71. 

Swallows,  mentioned,  152. 

Swamps,  in  Pennsylvania,  37;  in  New 
York,  37;  nature  of  timber  in,  37; 
surround  Iroquois  country,  37. 

Swans,    toothsome    to    Indians,    65. 

Swearing,    see    Cursing. 

Sweating-ovens,  doctors  use  of,  26;  how 
made,  26;  described  by  Dr.  McClure, 
159;  fatal  to  small-pox  and  consump 
tion,  159. 

Syphilis,  treatment  for,  158. 


T. 


Talamataus,   see   Thomas. 

Tattooing,  12. 

Tennessee  River,  known  as  "Cherokee" 
from  Cherokee  Nation,  33,  159. 

Theft,  mentioned,  19;  considered  disgrace 
ful,  91;  satisfaction  for,  91. 

Thomas,  Cyrus,  "Indian  Tribes  in  Pre 
historic  Times",  cited,  172. 

Thunder,  Indian  idea  of,  147. 

Thurnstein,   Lord  of,   42. 

Thurnstein",   "The,  mentioned,  162. 

Time,    methods    of    reckoning,    145. 

Titles,  Indian  Tribes  particular  as  to,  142. 

Tobacco,  never  smoked  pure,  116;  sac 
rificed  to  owls,  139. 

Tom-tits,   mentioned,   69. 

Toothache,  rum  sacrificed  to  cure,  140; 
treatment  for,  149. 

Tournament,  Iroquois  dice,  described,  119. 

Towns,  how  situated  and  planned,  87; 
Gochachgunk,  a  regularly  planned,  87; 
located  with  respect  to  fuel,  87;  two 
Iroquois,  in  dice  tournament,  119. 

Trade,  Iroquois,  amounted  to  little,  41; 
articles  of  Indian,  118. 

Traders,  losses  of  Indian,  15;  evil  in 
fluences,  79;  Indians  glad  to  deceive, 
117;  robbed  by  Indians,  117;  lose  many 
bad  debts,  117;  articles  carried  by, 
118. 

Transmigration,   of   souls,   131. 

Treachery,    Indian,    stories    of,    19. 

Treaty,  text  kept  by  Chiefs,  94;  of  peace,. 
97. 

Treaty   Dance,   described,   121. 


188 


David  Zeisbcrgcr's  History 


Trees,  killed  to  increase  arable  acreage, 
29;  of  Ohio,  47,  48,  51,  52,  162  seq. 
Indians  wrote  on,  114. 

Tribal,    divisions,    92. 

Tribes,  created  to  prevent  intermarriage 
of  relatives,  81,  98. 

Trout,    mentioned,   37. 

Tschipcghacki,  [Tschipey  Hacki]  the 
"land  of  spirits",  134,  147;  only  the 
good  will  enter,  134;  Milky  Way,  the 
road  to,  148. 

Tschimammus,  see  Hare. 

Tulpehocken,    mentioned,    42. 

Turkey,  wild,  66;  plumage  changes  color, 
66;  eggs  eaten  by  Indians,  66. 

Turtle,  eggs  and  flesh  relished  by  In 
dians,  74. 

Turtle  Creek,  scene  of  Braddock's  defeat, 
43. 

Turtle  doves,  mentioned,  66,   152. 

Turtle  tribe,  repeopled  the  world  after 
the  flood,  131. 

Tuscarawas  River,  Unamis  lived  beside, 
159;  Unalochtgos,  lived  beside,  159. 

Twins,  rare  among  Indians,  81;  regarded 
as  fortunate,  141. 


U. 


'udellowen,  "Delaware"  thought  to  be  de 
rived    from,    114. 
Ulcers,    treatment   for,   158. 
Underground  dwellings,  mentioned,  30. 


Vcnango,    early    name    of    French    Creek, 

42. 

Venereal  disease,  ravages  of,  24. 
Vermillion,    for    painting,    55;     found    in 

Muskingum   Valley,   55;   used  to   color 

men's   heads,  87. 

Vermillion   River,  mentioned,  170. 
Vines,    in    Muskingum    Valley,    51. 
Violet,  blue,  used  to  make  a  decoction  to 

cure   felon,  158. 
Vipers,   described,   71. 
""Vomit   Town",   see  Waketameki. 


Wabash  River,  tribes  on,  108;  country  on, 

110;    buffalo    on,    110. 

Waketameki,    called    "Vomit    Town",    172. 
Walnut  bark,  medicinal  properties  of,  56; 

reduces  swelling,  57;   allays  toothache, 


etc.,  57;  mentioned,  77;  used  to  blister, 
148;  concoction  of,  used  to  stop 
bleeding,  149. 

Wampum,  uses  of,  19,  31;  kinds  of,  31- 
32;  accompany  speeches,  94;  ceremony 
of  refusing,  94,  111-112;  made  of  sea- 
mussel  shells,  94;  color  and  manufac 
ture,  94-95;  of  two  hundred  shells 
worth  a  Spanish  dollar,  94;  made  by 
women,  95;  for  Road  Belt,  95;  of 
black  signifies  warning,  95;  of  red 
means  war,  95;  white  means  peace, 
95;  furnished  by  tribe,  95;  used  in 
election  of  chief,  112;  mentioned,  159; 
primitive,  170. 

Wapiti,   related  to  the  stag,  164. 

War,  how  declared,  114;  all  debts  can 
celled  on  outbreak  of,  117. 

War  Dance,  described,  103,  121. 

War  Parties,  small  in  number,  103;  how 
conducted,  103-105. 

Warfare,  earliest  fashion  of,  31;  serious 
because  difficult  to  end,  102;  method 
of  carrying  on,  102-105;  begun  to  re 
gain  land  once  sold,  122. 

Warriors,  described,  102-105;  take  med 
icine  to  preserve  life,  127. 

Washing,  not  characteristic  of  all  In 
dian  women,  87. 

Washington's  Tour  to  the  Ohio,  by  A.  B. 
Hulbert,  cited,  159. 

Wasps,    mentioned,    152. 

Water,  determined  location  of  towns,  87; 
see  also  Fuel. 

Water-beech,    mentioned,    47. 

\\later-dogs,   mentioned,   74. 

Water-snake,    described,   72. 

Weeping,  at  funerals,  89. 

Wheaton,  J.   M.,   quoted,  166. 

Whip-poor-will,   mentioned,   152. 

White    Eyes,   mentioned,   172. 

"White   Indians",   mentioned,   154. 

White  Perch,  mentioned,  74. 

Widowers,  retained  nothing  of  wife's 
property,  88;  not  remarry  within  one 
year,  88;  often  marry  deceased  wife's 
sister,  88;  had  no  rules  of  conduct, 
150. 

Widows,  not  to  remarry  within  one  year, 
88;  must  live  by  own  industry,  88; 
must  not  purchase  meat,  88;  after  one 
year  friends  assist,  88;  are  in  dis 
repute  if  remarried  within  ane  year, 
88;  retain  nothing  of  husband's  prop 
erty,  87-88;  rules  of  conduct  for,  150. 


Nortli  American  Indians. 


189 


Wife,  strange  idea  of  relationship  be 
tween  husband  and,  99. 

Wild   cats,    described,   60. 

\Vild  grapes,  mentioned,  46. 

Wild    Laurel,    mentioned,    46. 

Winters,  various  facts  concerning  Ohio, 
44-45. 

IVinn  Gischuch,  ''when  the  corn  is  in 
the  milk",  (August),  145. 

Witchcraft,  Indian,  described,  125-129;  no 
effect  on  Europeans  because  they  eat 
salt,  126. 

Witch-ball",  "Shooting  the,  murderous 
practice  of  the  Nantikok  sorcerers, 
126. 

Woapanachke,    see    Lenni-Lenape. 

Woapanachky,  name  of  the  Delawares,  36, 
160. 

Wolves,  follow  hunters  to  feast  on  game, 
14;  Indians  rarely  shoot,  14;  skin  of 
no  value,  14,  64;  described,  64;  gray 
and  black,  Gl;  summon  comrades  when 
deer  is  killed,  65. 

Women,  strong  bodily,  80;  love  finery,  86; 
dress  described,  86;  conversation  of, 
116;  reports  circulated  by,  receive  no 
credit,  llfi,  124;  sell  rum,  117;  ad 
dicted  to  lying  and  gossiping,  124; 
had  poor  memory,  144;  hardships  dis 
credited  by  Heckewelder,  154;  Loskiel 
on  temper  of,  155. 

Woodpecker,    mentioned,    67. 

Worship.  [Sacrifices],  described,  136-140; 
by  families,  136-137;  dancing  at,  137; 


various  feasts  connected  with,  137- 
140;  'ngammuin,  138;  voracious  spirit, 
138;  fire,  138;  eat-all  feasts,  138;  in 
sweating-ovens,  138. 

Wounds,  treated  skillfully  by  Indians, 
158. 

Wrens,   mentioned,  69. 

W'restling,   bouts,    118. 

Writing,   Indian,   114,   145. 

Wtellenapewoagan,  the  "Substance  of  a 
Human  Being",  131. 

IVtschitschank,  word   for  "Spirit",   131. 

Wyoming,  [\Vajomick]  Pa.,  Shawanese  at, 
109;  Neville's  Island,  scene  of  Dela 
ware-Cherokee  battle,  109;  flats  com 
pared  with  Wabash  region,  110. 

Y. 

Yellow  bird,  mentioned,  69. 
Yellow  perch,  mentioned,  37. 
Yellow  Ochre,  mentioned,  164. 

Z. 

Zeisberger,  David,  early  life,  1;  goes  to 
Iroquois,  2-3;  work  in  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania,  3-4;  enters  Ohio,  3;  last 
years,  4-5;  Diary,  mentioned,  4;  Heck 
ewelder,  on  character  of,  5;  Mortimer 
on,  5-6;  wrote  history  for  Loskiel,  7; 
published  works  and  manuscripts,  10- 
11;  portrays  Indian  degeneration,  170. 

Zinzendorf,    Count,    mentioned,    162. 


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